SULLPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS

SULPHUR:

Sulphur is a non-metallic element in group six and period 3 of the

periodic table. The atomic number of sulphur is 16 and its
electronic configuration is
2 : 8 : 6 sulphur has a valency of two (2).

Sulphur can exist as a simple molecule in which 8 sulphur atoms

are covalently bonded together. ( S8). This molecule is normally
found in solid and liquid sulphur

Simple molecular structure

Sulphur has a simple molecular structure because the molecules

of sulphur are held together by week forces of attraction known as
Van der waals forces. Hence sulphur has a low melting point.

Extraction of sulphur:

There are two main sources of sulphur, i.e.

i. Free sulphur
ii. Combined sulphur.

Free sulphur is normally found underground in the United States

of America in the states of Louisiana and Texas.

Combined sulphur is normally found in compounds such as;

hydrogen sulphide which are obtained from petroleum gases.

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There are three main methods that can be used in the extraction of
sulphur depending on the source of the sulphur. These include:-
- Frasch process
- Sicily process,
- Petroleum gases or natural gas method.
The Frasch Process for Extraction of Sulphur:
Free sulphur is normally found underground under sand.
Therefore mining it is not easy.
In the Frasch process, the sulphur is first melted and it is
then forced to the surface. In this case, a hole is drilled to the
sulphur beds and three concentric pipes are put down the
hole.

Super heated water (water under pressure) is forced down the

outer most pipe and it is used to melt the sulphur. The super
heated water is at a temperature of 170oC and a pressure of
10 atmospheres.

Hot compressed air (air under pressure) is then forced down

the innermost pipe. Thereby forcing a froth of molten sulphur,
water and air to the surface through the middle pipe by
pressure.

The molten sulphur is run into large tanks where it solidifies

on cooling.

DIAGRAM OF APPARATUS OF THE ABOVE METHOD

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USES OF SULPHUR

i. Sulphur is used in the vulcanization of rubber – rubber is

soft and sticky and by the given process, it is made hard
and strong by heating it with sulphur.
ii. Gun powder, fireworks and matches contains sulphur.
iii. Sulphur ointments, sulphur tablets and sulphur drugs are
widely used in medicine.
iv. Fruit trees are sprayed with sulphur that kills insects and
also fungi which cause disease.
v. Sulphuric acid is manufactured from sulphur in the
contact process.

ALLOTROPES OF SULPHUR

Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one structural

form but in the same physical state.

Sulphur exhibits allotropy. There are three allotropes of sulphur

namely :-
- Rhombic sulphur (Alpha sulphur)

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- Monoclinic sulphur (Beta sulphur)
- Amorphous sulphur

Rhombic sulphur and monoclinic sulphur are the crystalline

allotropes while amorphous sulphur is the non-crystalline allotrope.
The crystalline ones are the most important.

The allotropes have similar chemical properties because they all

consist of the same element.

However, the allotropes have different physical properties because

their structures are different.

Physical Properties of Rhombic and Monoclinic Sulphur:

Rhombic Sulphur Monoclinic Sulphur

- Stable below 96oC - Stable above 96oC
- Bright yellow - Pale yellow
- has a density of 2.06 gcm- - has a density of 1.98
3 gcm-3
- has a melting point of - has a melting point of
113oC 119oC
- is on the form of - Is in the form of needle –
octahedral crystals. shaped crystals.

Note: If Rhombic sulphur is heated gently until a temperature of

96oC, it
slowly changes to monoclinic sulphur.
Similarly, if monoclinic sulphur is cooled to a temperature
below 96oC,
it slowly changes to rhombic sulphur.

Rhombic sulphur monoclinic sulphur

(above 96oC) (Below 96oC)

The temperature of 96oC is referred to as the transition

temperature.

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Rhombic sulphur is unstable at temperatures above 96 oC (therefore
it changes to monoclinic sulphur) while monoclinic sulphur is
unstable at temperatures below 96oC (therefore it changes to
rhombic sulphur.

Diagrams showing the monoclinic and rhombic sulphur crystals

Proof to show that Rhombic and Monoclinic Sulphur are

crystalline allotropes of sulphur

A. When equal masses of each allotrope are separately burnt in

oxygen gas, the same mass of sulphur dioxide gas is obtained
as the only product in each case.
B. When a given mass of monoclinic sulphur is kept at room
temperature, it slowly changes into an equal mass of rhombic
sulphur.

Note: A is a chemical test used when proving whereas B is the

physical test used when proving.

PREPARATION OF THE CRYSTALLINE ALLOTROPES OF

SULPHUR

Preparation of Rhombic Sulphur:

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Roll sulphur is dissolved in an organic solvent such as
methylbenzene or dimethyl benzene (xylene) or carbon disulphide
and the mixture is heated gently.
The mixture is then filtered using dry filter paper and the filtrate is
collected in a beaker or a porcelain dish.

The beaker containing the filtrate is then covered with an paper

that has a few holes in it to allow the organic solvent to evaporate
off slowly. The organic solvent is volatile therefore it escapes easily.

The beaker is kept in a fume cupboard and after a few days, bright
yellow crystals of Rhombic sulphur are formed when all the solvent
has evaporated.

The crystals are viewed under a microscope and they appear in the
form of an octahedral shape.

Preparation of monoclinic sulphur:

Roll sulphur is put in an evaporating basin and warmed gently with

a small flame until it just melts.

More roll sulphur is then added to the evaporating basin and the
heating is continued until the evaporating basin is almost full of
molten sulphur.

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The mixture is allowed to cool and a thin solid crust forms over its
surface.

Two holes are then made into the thin solid crust on the surface
and the molten sulphur underneath is poured through one of the
holes into a beaker of water. The second hole lets air into the
molten sulphur.

The evaporating basin is allowed to cool and the crust is cut away
and lifted out.

Under the crust and inside the evaporating basin, pole yellow
crystals in the form of needles or thin prisms are observed when
viewed under a microscope.

Preparation of plastic sulphur:

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Boiling sulphur is poured in form of a thin continuous stream into
a beaker of water and a yellowish – brown elastic solid called plastic
sulphur is formed.

The molecules in plastic sulphur are arranged in chains at random

similar to those in molten sulphur.

Plastic sulphur does not contain rings of 8 sulphur atoms and it is

insoluble in organic solvents such as carbon disulphide.

However, on standing for a few days changes to the hard yellow

rhombic sulphur which contains rings of 8 sulphur atoms.

Plastic sulphur is non crystalline and is an example of amorphous

sulphur.

Other examples of amorphous sulphur:

A. Amorphous sulphur normally obtained during chemical

reactions e.g. when hydrogen sulphide solution is left in air for

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a few days, a white precipitate of amorphous sulphur is
formed.

Hydrogen sulphide is a deducing agent and it is oxidized by

atmospheric oxygen (aerial oxidation) to sulphur and water.

Equation:
2H2S(aq) + O2(ag) 2S(s) + 2H2O(l)

White precipitate
B. Amorphous sulphur is normally obtained in chemical reaction
as a white solid.

Sodium thiosulphate solution reacts with dilute mineral acids

to form a white precipitate of amorphous sulphur ionic
equation.

S2O32-(aq) + 2H+ (aq) S(s) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)

(Thiosulphate ion)

white colourless gas

Precipitate

PROPERTIES OF SULPHUR (others – some e.g. boiling/melting

points were mentioned)

i. Sulphur is a yellow, non-metallic solid which is insoluble in

water.
ii. Sulphur dissolves in organic solvents such as ethanol,
carbon disulphide, carbon tetrachloride, methylbenzene,
dimethyl benzene (xylene) etc.

Chemical properties:

1. a) Sulphur burns in air with a blue flame. Sulphur reacts with

oxygen gas to form sulphur dioxide gas. (Sulphur (iv) oxide)

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b) Sulphur reacts with excess oxygen gas to form sulphur
trioxide gas.
(sulphur (VI) oxide)
2S(s) + 3O2(g) 2SO3(g)

2. a) Sulphur – reacts with metals on heating to form sulphides

e.g. sulphur reacts with iron on heating to form iron(ii) sulphide
which is a grey black solid.

Equation:
heat
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s) (grey black solid)

3. Sulphur combines directly with some non-metals such as

carbon to form carbon disulphide. Carbon disulphide is a useful
organic solvent.

C(s) + 2S(s) C S2(l)

4. Sulphur is oxidized by hot concentrated sulphuric acid to

sulphur dioxide gas.

2H2SO4(l) + S(s) 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

5. Sulphur is oxidized by concentrated nitric acid to sulphuric

acid.

S(s) + 6HNO3(l) H2SO4(aq) +6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

In this case, nitric acid is reduced to nitrogen dioxide gas and

water.

N.B. Concentrated nitric acid is a stronger oxidizing agent than

concentrated sulphuric acid as seen from the above two reactions.

6. Hydrogen bubbled into molten sulphur forms hydrogen

sulphide. The result is so little that this method is not used.
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H2(g) + S(l) H2S(g)

COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR

SULPHURDIOXIDE:

Sulphur dioxide (sulphur (IV) oxide), SO2, exists normally as a gas

which is colourless.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF SULPHURDIOXIDE:

A. Using sodium sulphite or sodium hydrogen sulphite and

concentrated sulphuric acid.

Sodium sulphite crystals are place in a round bottomed flask

because it is a solid and heating is required. Concentrated

sulphuric acid is poured into the flask through the thistle funnel

because it is a liquid.

The mixture is gently heated so as to drive off the gas from the

aqueous mixture in which most of it would dissolve at room

temperature.

When the acid gets into contact with the sodium sulphite,

effervescence of a colourless gas occurs. The gas is bubbled through

a wash bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid to dry it and

because sulphur dioxide does not react with sulphuric acid.

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The dried gas is then collected by downward delivery because it is

denser than air.

Equation of reaction:

Na2SO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + SO2(ag) + H2O(l)

Ionic Equation:

SO32- (s) + 2H+(aq) SO2(g) + H2O(l)

Diagram showing the apparatus and set up of the experiment:

(Draw diagram from Certificate Chemistry by Arthur Atkinson

4th edition, page 246, figure 20.7)

NOTE:
Also sulphur dioxide can be got when sodium hydrogen sulphite is
reacted with a dilute mineral acid e.g. hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid or nitric acid (dilute), but this is not a laboratory preparation
and the reaction is slow.

Equation for reaction with sodium hydrogen sulphite:

2NaHSO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Ionic equation:

HSO3- (s) + H+(aq) SO2(g) + H2O(l)

B. Using copper and concentrated sulphuric acid:

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Copper metal is placed in a round bottomed flask because it is a
solid and heating is required. Concentrated sulphuric acid is
poured into the flask through the thistle funnel because it is a
liquid.
The mixture is gently heated so as to speed up the rate of the
reaction.
When the acid gets into contact with the copper metal,
effervescence of a colourless gas occurs. The gas is bubbled through
a wash bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid to dry it and
because sulphur dioxide does not react with sulphuric acid.
The dried gas is then collected by downward delivery because it is
denser than air.

Equation of reaction:

Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Diagram of apparatus:

(Draw diagram from A New Certificate Chemistry by Lambert 4th

edition, page 431, figure 183)

Observation:

Effervescence occurs and a colourless gas is given off.

A blue solution remains in the flask.

N.B. – The blue solution is copper(II) sulphate and the colourless

gas is sulphur dioxide.

PROPERTIES OF SULPHURDIOXIDE

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Physical properties:

i. Sulphur dioxide is a colourless, poisonous gas with an

irritating smell. Similar to that of burning sulphur.
ii. Sulphur dioxide gas is denser that air and it is therefore
collected by downward delivery (upward displacement of
air).
iii. Sulphur dioxide gas readily dissolves in water therefore
during its preparation; it should not be collected over water.

NB: Gases collected over water are those which do not or

hardly dissolve in water i.e. are insoluble in water.
A solution of sulphur dioxide in water is called sulphurous
acid and it turns blue litmus paper red.

However, sulphurous acid is a weak acid.

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(ag)

H2SO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO32- (aq)

Note: Sulphur dioxide gas turns moist/damp blue litmus

paper red and therefore it is an acidic gas.
iv. Sulphur dioxide gas does not burn but reacts with oxygen
gas in the presence of a catalyst to form sulphur trioxide.
(Sulphur (VI) oxide).

V2O5
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

The catalyst is vanadium (V) oxide.

Chemical properties:

Sulphur dioxide gas behaves both as a reducing agent and an

oxidising agent.

a. Reducing properties of sulphur dioxide gas:

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sulphur dioxide gas is a powerful reducing agent in the presence
of water,
e.g. Recall.

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

H2SO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO2-3(aq)

The sulphite ion is responsible for the reducing ability of

sulphur dioxide gas in the presence of water.

The sulphite ion in the presence of water is oxidized to the

sulphate ion.

SO32-(aq) + H2O(l) SO42- (aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e

(SO32- + H2O(l) – 2e SO42- (aq) + 2H+(aq))

The above two equations are the same.

Examples of reactions in which sulphur dioxide acts as a

reducing agent:

i. Reaction of sulphur dioxide with acidified potassium

permanganate (Potassium manganate (VII) ) solution
Sulphur dioxide gas reduces acidified potassium
permanganate solution and the purple solution turns
colourless. {When sulphur dioxide gas is bubbled into
acidified potassium permanganate solution, the purple
solution turns colourless} This reaction is used as a
chemical test to identify sulphur dioxide gas.

ii. Reaction of sulphur dioxide with acidified potassium

dichromate solution:
Sulphur dioxide gas reduces acidified potassium
dichromate solution and the orange solution turns green.
{When sulphur dioxide gas is bubbled into acidified
potassium dichromate solution, the orange solution turns

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green} This reaction can also be used as a chemical test to
identify sulphur dioxide gas.

iii. Reaction with iron (III) chloride solution:

Sulphur dioxide reduces iron (III) chloride solution and the
yellow solution turns green. {The iron (III) chloride is
reduced to iron (II) chloride while sulphur dioxide in the
presence of water is oxidized to sulphuric acid.}

2FeCl3(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2FeCl2(aq) +HCl(aq) +H2SO4(aq)

Ionic equation:

2Fe3+(aq)+SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2Fe2+(aq) + 4H+(aq) + SO42- (aq)

Yellow green

Reaction with oxygen:

Sulphur dioxide in water is oxidized by oxygen to form

sulphuric acid.

2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 2H2SO4(ag)

An aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide in air slowly

undergoes oxidation (aerial oxidation) to form sulphuric
acid.

Aerial oxidation is the oxidation brought about by

atmospheric oxygen.

2H2SO3(aq) + O2(g) 2H2SO4(aq)

Reaction with concentrated nitric acid:

Sulphur dioxide reduces concentrated nitric acid to nitrogen

dioxide gas and is itself oxidized to sulphuric acid.

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Observation: Reddish brown fumes of gas are evolved.

Equation of reaction:

SO2(g) + 2HNO3(aq) H2SO4(aq) + 2NO2(g)

Reddish brown fumes

B. Bleaching action of sulphur dioxide:

Sulphur dioxide in water is a bleaching agent thereby
removing colour from coloured substances (dyes)

Sulphur dioxide in water is oxidized to sulphuric acid while

the dye is reduced by gaining hydrogen to form a colourless
substance.

Equation:

SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + dye(s) H2SO4(aq) + (dye + 2H)

Coloured (colourless)
Oxidizing properties of sulphur dioxide:

Sulphur dioxide can act as an oxidizing agent in the presence of

reducing agents stronger than itself.

Examples of reducing agents that are more powerful than sulphur

dioxide include hydrogen sulphide and metals such as magnesium
etc.

(i) Reaction with hydrogen sulphide:

Sulphur dioxide oxidizes hydrogen sulphide to sulphur and water
and is itself reduced to sulphur.
SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) 3S(s) + 2H2O(l)

Yellow solid
(ii) Reaction with magnesium:
Sulphur dioxide oxidizes magnesium to magnesium oxide and is
itself reduced to sulphur.

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SO2(g) + 2Mg(s) 2MgO(s) + S(s)

Colourless grey white solid yellow solid

Gas solid

When burning magnesium ribbon is lowered into a gas jar of

sulphur dioxide, it continues burning with a brilliant flame to form
a white solid and yellow solid particles are deposited on the sides of
the gas jar.

Other reactions:
Sulphur dioxide reacts with aqueous solutions of alkalis to form
salts called sulphites.

SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Excess sodium sulphite

When excess sulphur dioxide is bubbled into the alkali, the acid
salt (hydrogen sulphite) is formed. Sodium sulphite is a normal
salt.

Na2SO3(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l) 2NaHSO3(aq)

Excess sodium hydrogen sulphite

When the alkali is in excess we get the normal salt but if the
sulphur dioxide is excess, we get the acid salt.

Uses of Sulphur dioxide:

i. Most sulphur dioxide is used in the contact process for the

manufacture of sulphuric acid.
ii. It is used to bleach wool, silk, straw and sponges, all of
which are damaged by chlorine.
iii. It is used to manufacture calcium hydrogensulphite,
Ca(HSO3)2, used to make wood pulp while in the
manufacture of paper.
iv. It is a poisonous gas and is used to kill germs and
dangerous insects in houses, clothing and grain
(fumigation).

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v. It is added as a preservative to foodstuffs and fruit squashes
e.g. orange juice. It reacts with oxygen and prevents
oxidation of liquids.

SULPHURTRIOXIDE: (Sulphur (VI) oxide)

Sulphur trioxide is a white hydroscopic solid which is normally

obtained as a colourless gas in the form of white fumes.

REPARATION OF SULPHURTRIOXIDE:

Sulphur trioxide can be prepared by passing a mixture of dry

sulphur dioxide gas and oxygen gas over heated platinised asbestos
or vanadium (V) oxide as catalyst.

Equation:
V2O5
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

(450o – 500oC

Platinised asbestos is made by soaking asbestos in platinum

chloride solution and then igniting the mixture.

The reaction between sulphur dioxide and oxygen is normally

carried out using vanadium (V) oxide as catalyst because it is not
easily rendered in active (poisoned by impurities).

However platinum (platinised asbestos) is easily poisoned by

impurities.

Sulphur trioxide is given off as dense white fumes which solidify on

cooling using a freezing mixture of ice and common salt. (sodium
chloride) Salt lowers the Freezing point of Ice

The sulphur trioxide collected is protected from atmospheric

moisture using a tube containing anhydrous calcium chloride.

The sulphur trioxide is collected using a tube containing anhydrous

calcium chloride because it is hygroscopic and so the anhydrous

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calcium chloride prevents sulphur trioxide from absorbing
moisture/water from the atmosphere.

Diagram of apparatus:

PROPERTIES OF SULPHUR TRIOXIDE:

(i) Sulphur trioxide is a white hygroscopic solid with a melting

point of 17oC and point of45oC.

(ii) Sulphur trioxide is normally evolved as a colourless gas in the

form of dense white fumes.

(iii) Sulphur trioxide reacts vigorously with water to form sulphuric

acid.

Equation:

SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

Hence sulphur trioxide is an acidic oxide. An acidic oxide is an

oxide of a non-metal that dissolves in water to form an acid.

SULPHURIC ACID

Sulphuric acid is a strong dibasic mineral acid.

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID BY THE CONTACT

PROCESS:

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The contact process involves the stages through which different
substances react resulting in the formation of sulphuric acid.

Stages in the contact process:

There are four stages involved in the contact process; namely:-

- Preparation of sulphur dioxide
- Purification of gases
- Conversion into sulphur trioxide
- Conversion of sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid.

a. Preparation of sulphur dioxide:

Sulphur dioxide is obtained by burning sulphur in air.

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

b. Purification of gases:
The mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess air is purified in
order to remove impurities such as dust which would
otherwise “poison” the catalyst.

The catalysts normally used include platinised asbestos

(platinum) and vanadium (V) oxide. However, platinum is very
expensive and it is easily poisoned by impurities. Hence
vanadium (V) oxide is preferred as a catalyst. Monohydrate
absorber is an example as a purifying agent.

c. Conversion into sulphur trioxide:

The mixture of sulphur dioxide and air is passed over finely
divided vanadium (V) oxide at a temperature of 450 – 500oC to
form sulphur trioxide.
(450 – 500oC)
V2O5
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

d. Conversion of sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid:

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Sulphur trioxide is not directly dissolved in water because the
reaction produces a lot of misty fumes of acid accompanied
with evolution of a lot of heat.

Instead, the sulphur trioxide is first dissolved in concentrated

sulphuric acid to form a dense oily liquid called oleum.

SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)

Concentrated Oleum
(98% acid, 2% water)

The oleum is then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid.

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Oleum water sulphuric acid

The more water added to the oleum, the more dilute the
sulphuric acid obtained. The less water added to the oleum,
the more concentrated the sulphuric acid obtained.

Diagram showing the contact process:

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE YIELD OF SULPHUR TRIOXIDE
DURING THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID BY THE
CONTACT PROCESS

a. Moderate temperature of about 450o – 500oC

This range of temperature is used for maximum yield of
sulphur trioxide. The reaction between sulphur dioxide and
oxygen to form sulphur dioxide is accompanied with evolution
of heat, (exothermic) and therefore it is favoured by relatively
low temperatures. However, at low temperature the reaction is
very slow, though the yield of sulphur trioxide is good. Hence
a moderate temperature of about 450o - 500oC is used at
which the reaction is relatively fast and the yield or sulphur
trioxide is reasonable.

b. High Pressure of about 100 – 200 atmospheres:

The reaction between sulphur dioxide and oxygen to form
sulphur trioxide is accompanied with a decrease in volume
and therefore it is favoured by increase in pressure. (Pressure
is inversely proportional to volume) Hence, high pressure of
about 100 – 200 atmospheres is used to give maximum yield
of sulphur trioxide.

c. Presence of vanadium (V) oxide or platinised asbestos as

catalyst:
A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical
reaction but remains chemically unchanged at the end of the
reaction.

Vanadium (V) oxide or platinised asbestos speeds up the rate

of reaction between sulphur dioxide and oxygen to form
sulphur trioxide. However it does not affect the yield of
sulphur trioxide. The catalyst is finely divided to increase its
surface area in content with the reactants.

PROPERTIES OF SULPHURIC ACID:

1. Concentrated sulphuric acid (98% acid, 2% water) is a dense

oily liquid with a density of 1.83 g/c.c. It decomposes at its
boiling point of 330oC to form white fumes of sulphur trioxide.

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H2SO4(l) SO3(g) + H2O(g)

Conc. White fumes

2. Concentrated sulphuric acid readily dissolves in water to form

dilute sulphuric acid. However a lot of heat is given off in the
process. (The process is highly exothermic) Hence, NEVER
add water to concentrated sulphuric acid instead carefully add
concentrated acid to water along the side of the container and
gently stir the mixture to ensure that the acid dissolves in the
water.

Sulphuric acid reacts as:

a) An acid
b) A non – volatile acid.
c) An oxidizing agent
d) A dehydrating agent.

a. Sulphuric acid as an acid:

Dilute sulphuric acid is a strong dibasic mineral acid.

H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42- (aq)

Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metals, bases/alkalis,

carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.

I. Reaction with metals:

Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metals above hydrogen in the
reactivity series to form a salt and hydrogen gas is given off.

M(s) + H2SO4(aq) MSO4(aq) + H2(g)

e.g. M = Mg (magnesium), Zn (zinc)

Ionic Equation:

M(s) + 2H+(aq) M2+(aq) + H2(g)

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II. Reaction with alkalis/bases
Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with bases to form salts and
water only e.g.

a) MO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Ionic equation:

O2-(s) + 2H+(aq) H2O(l)

M is a metal e.g. Magnesium, Zinc, Copper

b) 2MOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) M2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Ionic equation:

2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) 2H2O(l)

M is a metal like – sodium and Potassium

OH-(aq) + H+(aq) H2O(l)

N.B.: The reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and
water only is known as neutralization.

III. Reaction with carbonates/hydrogen carbonates:

Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates to form salts, water and carbon dioxide gas is
given off e.g.

a. MCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) MSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Ionic Equation:

CO32- (aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

M can be Magnesium, zinc or copper.

2MHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) M2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Ionic Equation:

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2HCO3- (s) + 2H+(aq) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

HCO3- (s) + H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

M can be sodium or potassium.

b. Sulphuric acid as a non – volatile acid:

Concentrated sulphuric acid is less volatile than concentrated
hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid. (Conc. Hydrochloric
acid and conc. Nitric acid are much more volatile than conc.
Sulphuric acid) Therefore conc. Nitric acid and conc. Hydrochloric
acid are easily displaced from their salts by concentrated sulphuric
acid.

Volatile means evaporates easily/faster and therefore has a low

boiling point.

Nitrates are salts of nitric acid, while chlorides are salts of

hydrochloric acid. Sulphates are salts of sulphuric acid.

i. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with chlorides such

as sodium chloride to form hydrogen chloride gas
(concentrated hydrochloric acid) and sodium hydrogen
sulphate.
heat
H2SO4(l) + NaCl(s) HCl(g) + NaHSO4(s)

In this reaction, concentrated sulphuric acid displaces

hydrogen chloride gas (concentrated hydrochloric acid) from
its salt (sodium chloride) because it is less volatile than it.
The above reaction is used in the laboratory preparation of
hydrogen chloride gas.

ii. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with nitrates such

as potassium nitrate to form concentrated nitric acid and
potassium hydrogen sulphate.
heat
H2SO4(l) + KNO3(s) HNO3(l) + KHSO4(s)

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Concentrated sulphuric acid displaces concentrated nitric
acid from potassium nitrate because it is less volatile than
it. The above reaction is used in the laboratory preparation
of Nitric acid.

c. Sulphuric acid as an oxidizing agent:

Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is an oxidizing agent.

i. Reaction with metals:

Hot concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes metals such as
copper, zinc to their salts (sulphates) and is itself reduced to
sulphur dioxide gas and water.

M(s) + H2SO4(l) MSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

The reaction between copper metal (copper turnings) and

conc. Sulphuric acid is normally used in the laboratory
preparation of sulphur dioxide gas.

ii. Reaction with non-metals:

Hot concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes non-metals such
as carbon, sulphur to carbon dioxide gas and sulphur
dioxide gas respectively, while it is reduced to sulphur
dioxide gas and water.

2H2SO4(l) + S(s) 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

2H2SO4(l) + C(s) 2SO2(g) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

iii. Reaction with hydrogen sulphide:

Concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes hydrogen sulphide to
water and sulphur and is itself reduced to sulphur dioxide
gas and water.

H2SO4(l) + H2S(g) SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + S(s)

yellow
Note:
For sulphuric acid to act as an oxidizing agent, it must be
concentrated and hot.

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d. Sulphuric acid as a dehydrating agent:
Concentrated sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent because it
has a great affinity for water. Hence concentrated sulphuric
acid is normally used as a drying agent in the laboratory
preparation of gases. Concentrated sulphuric acid is
hygroscopic (absorbs moisture from the atmosphere).

When a given volume of concentrated sulphuric acid is put in

a beaker and left to stand for a few days, the level of the acid
slowly rises because the acid absorbs water vapour from the
atmosphere.

Concentrated sulphuric acid removes water or the elements of

water (hydrogen and oxygen) from many compounds. Such as
hydrated copper(II) sulphate, sugar crystals (sucrose/glucose),
ethanol (alcohol).

The process by which a substance loses water is referred to as

dehydration.

i. Dehydration of hydrated copper (II) sulphate

(CuSO4.5H2O)
When concentrated sulphuric acid is added to crystals of
hydrated copper (II) sulphate, the blue crystals slowly lose
their water of crystallization and a white powdery solid of
anhydrous copper (II) sulphate is formed.

CuSO4. 5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

conc. H2SO4
Blue crystals white powder

N.B: The copper (II) sulphate turns to powder from crystals

because the water of crystallization has been removed.

The water is responsible for the crystalline nature of the

hydrated copper (II) sulphate.

ii. Dehydration of Sugar:

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When concentrated sulphuric acid is added to sugar
(sucrose or glucose), and the mixture is heated, a black,
spongy mass is formed which swells and rises to the top of
the container. This is because concentrated sulphuric acid
absorbs hydrogen and oxygen (elements of water) from the
sugar to form carbon.
heat
C12H22O11(s) 12C(s) + 11H2O(l)
(Sucrose) conc. H2SO4 (black)
heat
C6H12O6(s) 6C(s) + 6H2O(l)
(Cellulose) conc. H2SO4 (black)

The above reaction is accompanied with evolution of

poisonous gases such as sulphur dioxide and carbon
monoxide. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is a powerful
dehydrating agent. When cold concentrated sulphuric acid
is added to sugar, the sugar turns brown and slowly
darkens on standing. This is because cold concentrated
sulphuric acid is a less powerful dehydrating agent than hot
concentrated sulphuric acid.

iii. Dehydration of paper, cloth, wood:

Paper, cloth and wood contain cellulose and when
concentrated sulphuric acid is added to them separately,
hydrogen and oxygen are removed to form carbon.
Conc. H2SO4
C6H10O5(s) 6C(s) + 5H2O(l)
Cellulose black

In this case, the paper, cloth and wood slowly develop holes.
Dehydration of concentrated sulphuric acid is faster in the
presence of water because the reaction between
concentrated sulphuric acid and water produces a lot of
heat (Highly exothermic).

Concentrated sulphuric acid rapidly burns the skin and

flesh causing painful wounds because the body contains
water.

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iv. Dehydration of ethanol (alcohol):
Excess concentrated sulphuric acid dehydrates ethanol at a
temperature of about 170o – 180o to form ethane.

Excess, conc. H2SO4

C2H5OH(aq) C2H4(g) + H2O(l)
(Ethanol) 170o – 180oC (ethene)

TEST FOR SULPHURIC ACID AND SULPHATES IN AQUEOUS

SOLUTION

The reagent used is Barium Nitrate solution followed by Nitric acid

(dilute) or Barium chloride solution followed by dilute hydrochloric
acid. The use of the acid is to show whether the precipitate
dissolves in the acid.

Observation:
A white precipitate insoluble in Acid is formed. (a white precipitate
that does not dissolve in acid is formed).

Equation of reaction (Ionic equation):

Ba2+(aq) + SO2-4(aq) BaSO4(s)

White precipitate

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID:

i. Manufacture of fertilizers
ii. Manufacture of detergents
iii. Manufacture of plastics
iv. Used in car batteries
v. Used in petroleum refineries
vi. Used in manufacture of drugs
vii. Used in manufacture of dyes.

HYDROGEN SULPHIDE

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Hydrogen sulphide is prepared in the laboratory by reacting iron (II)
sulphide and dilute hydrochloric acid.

Equation:

FeS(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2S(g)

Grey –black green

Observation:
The grey black solid dissolves in the acid with effervescence and a
colourless gas with a bad smell of rotten eggs is given off.

The reaction is carried out in a fume cupboard because hydrogen

sulphide gas is very poisonous.

The hydrogen sulphide gas given off is collected over warm water
because it is less soluble in warm water than in cold water.

Ionic equation:

S2–(s) + 2H+(aq) H2S(g)

PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN SULPHIDE:

Physical properties:

i. Hydrogen sulphide is a colourless gas with a repulsive smell

similar to that of rotten eggs.
It is a very poisonous gas
ii. Hydrogen sulphide is slightly soluble in water (less soluble
in warm water and more soluble in cold water) to form a
weakly acidic solution. Therefore, hydrogen sulphide gas
turns moist blue litmus paper red/pink hence it is an
acidic gas
H2O
H2S(g) 2H+(aq) + S2-(aq)

Sulphide ion

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iii. Hydrogen sulphide is slightly denser than air. Therefore it
can he collected by downward delivery.

Chemical properties of hydrogen sulphide

1. Combustion:
Hydrogen sulphide gas burns with a blue flame. In the
presence of a limited supply of oxygen, hydrogen sulphide is
oxidized to sulphur and water.

2H2S(g) + O2(g) 2S(s) + 2H2O(l)

Limited

In the presence of excess oxygen, hydrogen sulphide is

oxidised to sulphur dioxide and water.

2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Excess

2. Reducing properties of hydrogen sulphide:

Hydrogen sulphide in aqueous solution is a powerful reducing
agent.

a) Reaction with sulphur dioxide

Hydrogen sulphide is a stronger reducing agent than
sulphur dioxide. Therefore it reduces sulphur dioxide to
sulphur and is itself oxidized to sulphur and water.

2H2S(g) + SO2(g) 3S(s) + 2H2O(l)

b) Reaction with concentrated nitric acid

Hydrogen sulphide reduces concentrated nitric acid to
nitrogen dioxide gas and water and is itself oxidized to
sulphuric acid.

H2S(g) + 8HNO3(l) H2SO4(aq) + 8NO2(g) + 4H2O(l)

Conc.

Note: Hydrogen sulphide reduces dilute nitric acid to

nitrogen dioxide gas and water and is itself oxidized to sulphur and
water.

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H2S(g) + 2HNO3(aq) 2H2SO4(aq) + 2NO2(g) + S(s)
dilute

c) Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Hydrogen sulphide reduces concentrated sulphuric acid to
sulphur and water and is itself oxidized to sulphur and
water. Therefore hydrogen sulphide gas cannot be died
using concentrated sulphuric acid.

3H2S(g) + H2SO4(l) 4S(s) + 4H2O(l)

d) Reaction with iron (III) chloride solution

Hydrogen sulphide reduces iron(III) chloride solution to iron
(II) chloride and is itself oxidised to sulphur and hydrogen
chloride.

H2S(g) + 2FeCl3(aq) S(s) + 2HCl(aq) + 2FeCl2(aq)

Yellow solution green solution

The yellow solution turns green and a yellow solid is

deposited.

e) Reaction with acidified potassium permanganate solution

When hydrogen sulphide is passed into acidified potassium
permanganate solution, the purple solution turns colourless
and a yellow solid is deposited.

f) Reaction with acidified potassium dichromate solution

When hydrogen sulphide is passed into acidified potassium
dichromate solution, the orange solution turns green and a
yellow solid is deposited.

Note: The reducing properties of hydrogen sulphide are

similar to those of sulphur dioxide but hydrogen sulphide is
a stronger reducing agent.

3. Reaction with lead (II) ethanoate (lead (II) acetate)

solution:

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When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed into lead (II) ethanoate
solution, a black precipitate is formed. This is due to
formation of insoluble lead (II) sulphide.

H2S(g) + (CH3COO)2 Pb(aq) PbS(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)

Lead(II) ethanoate black solid ethanoic acid

Solution (black precipitate)

This reaction is used as a chemical test for hydrogen sulphide.

Hydrogen sulphide can be tested for by dipping a piece of filter
paper in lead (II) ethanoate solution and then passing hydrogen
sulphide gas onto the paper. The paper turns black.

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