• NTNU

• Noregs teknisk-naturvitskaplege universitet

• Fakultet for naturvitskap og teknologi
• Institutt for fysikk

• Fag ENERGI OG MILJØFYSIKK - TFY4300

• (Energy and Environmental Physics)

OCEAN-WAVE ENERGY

Introductory lectures by
Johannes Falnes

14 & 15 September 2016

http://folk.ntnu.no/falnes/teach/

[email protected]

Ocean waves as energy resource

• Ocean waves represent a clean and renewable energy source,
come into being by conversion of wind energy when winds
blow along the sea surface. Wind energy, in turn, originates
from solar energy, because sun heating produces low pressures
and high pressures in the atmosphere. In either of these two
energy conversions, energy flow becomes intensified.
• Just below sea surface the average wave-power level (energy
transport) is typically ten times denser than the wind energy
transport 20 m above the water, and 30 to 50 times denser than
average solar energy intensity.

1
• Average energy intensity:

• Solar energy: 100 - 200 W/m2

• Wind energy: 400 - 600 W/m2
• Wave energy: 4 - 6 kW/m2
(just below the sea surface
- but less in deeper water)

Steps of wave-energy conversion

Primary energy conversion,
for instance to energy in
Input wave energy to
pressurised air or water or
a wave power device
hydraulic oil, by removing
energy from the wave.

Secondary energy conversion

Primary,
by turbine or hydraulic motor.
secondary and
Mechanical energy by
tertiary energy
rotating shaft.
conversion

Tertiary energy conversion by

Electrical energy
electric generator.

2
Unfortunately, it seems that some inventors do not understand
the very important step of primary energy conversion.

Is this an illustration of a
wave-energy converter?
In the third step, an
electric generator is to
deliver electricity.
In the second step an air
turbine is to deliver
mechanical energy to a
rotating shaft.
Nothing seems to happen
with the wave! Thus the net
primary converted energy
is zero!

According to the illustration, if this device delivers useful energy,

it appears to be a perpetual engine machine! No energy seems
to be removed from the wave.

This “quasi point absorber” (QPA) seems to absorb no wave energy!

Nothing seems to
happen with the wave!

If this device delivers

energy, it seems to be
a perpetual engine
machine!

Animation downloaded 2016-08-26 from http://www.emec.org.uk/marine-energy/wave-devices

3
This “ pitching-flap absorber” seems to absorb no wave energy!

Nothing seems to
happen with the wave!

If this device delivers

energy, it seems to be
a perpetual engine
machine!

Animation downloaded 2016-08-26 from http://www.emec.org.uk/marine-energy/wave-devices

Schematic principle for extracting wave energy

Input energy from waves

Loss
Primary energy conversion

Energy in working fluid (air, water or hydraulic oil)

Loss
Turbine/motor

Mechanical energy in rotating shaft

Loss
Electrical generator

Electrical energy

4
These lectures are mainly aimed at
understanding
primary conversion of wave-energy

What is a wave?
• Everyone has seen waves on lakes or
oceans. Waves are actually a form of
energy. Energy, not water, moves along the
ocean's surface. The water particles only
travel in small circles as a wave passes.
Snapshot of the water surface at a certain instant:

Wave direction

5
GRAVITY WAVE ON DEEP WATER

One quarter period later

How to describe a wave

Snapshot of the water surface at a certain instant:

Wave direction

Wavelength L

Crest Amplitude A

Trough Wave height H

6
Surface elevation versus time

At a fixed position in space:

Time

Wave period T

Frequency f = 1 / T

7
What happens underwater?
In deep water the water
Wave direction
particles travel in
vertical circles (while in
shallow water the
motion is elliptical)
This motion of water
particles also happens
underwater, but the
particle velocity and
thereby the circle radius
decrease quickly On deep water, the radius of the water-
orbiting circle decays exponentially with
(exponentially) as you the distance (-z) below the mean water
go deeper in the water. surface. According to the factor exp{-k(-z)}

8
Here very shallow water has been assumed. (OK if h < L/20).

9
10
11
12
13
On deep water, the longer waves move faster than the
shorter waves.

Photo: Magne Falnes, 1999

14
Wave velocities
Time step 1
• The energy in the
waves travel with the
group velocity cg.
Time step 2
The individual waves
travel faster - they are
born on the rear end
of the group, and they Time step 3

die in the front end.

On deep water this
phase velocity is twice
the group velocity: g
c  2c g  T = (1.56 m/s2) ·T
2

15
Potential energy (averaged over time) for wave on sea surface.
Assumption: A propagating plane wave, sinusoidal in time and space.

Sea surface rectangle. Length:1 wavelength L. Width: 1 length unit (1 m).

Potential energy per unit area of the sea surface:

It can be shown [cf. Twidell + Weirt (2015) , § 11.3.1] that

there is an equal amount of kinetic energy associated
with the moving water below this sea surface rectangle:

Total stored energy per unit area of the sea surface:

16
The wave-power level J: the flow of wave power
per unit width of the wave front

Total stored energy per unit area of the sea surface:

Flow of energy per unit width of the wave front J:

group velocity of the wave

For the case of deep water:

The «wave-power level»:

The wave height:

Wave velocities
Time step 1
• The energy in the
waves travel with the
group velocity cg.
Time step 2
The individual waves
travel faster - they are
born on the rear end
of the group, and they Time step 3

die in the front end.

On deep water this
phase velocity is twice
the group velocity: g
c  2c g  T = (1.56 m/s2) ·T
2

17
For the case of deep water:
The «wave-power level»:

The wave height:

Plane wave propagating on deep
water in the positive x direction:

Multi-frequency
sea wave:

Multi-frequency
sea wave:

More
general
sea wave:

where we have introduced the real sea wave’s

«energy spectrum» S(f), for which the SI unit is
m2/Hz. The overbar denotes time average.

Spectrally defined «significant wave height»:

18
Spectrally defined «significant wave height»:

Spectrally defined «wave-power level»:

Spectrally defined «significant wave height»:

Spectrally defined «wave-power level»:

Spectral moment of order j:

Spectrally defined
«energy period»:
and «wave-
power level»:

19
Wind waves and swells
•Waves generated by wind are called wind
waves. When the waves propagate outside
their region of generation, they are called
swells [in Norwegian: dønning]. Where the
water is deep, swells can travel very large
distances, for instance across oceans,
almost without loss of energy.

On deep water, the longer waves move faster than the

shorter waves.

Photo: Magne Falnes, 1999

20
Swells propagating across the Pacific
• Since the group
velocity is proportional
Period to the period, low-
-10
T = 20 s frequency waves move
T = 18 s
faster away from a
-20
T = 16 s
storm centre than high-
T = 14 s frequency waves. The
-30 T = 12 s
figure shows the
situation 4 days after a
-40
T = 10 s storm with centre
located at 170º east
180 190 200 and 50º south.
Source: OCEANOR, Norway

The wave-power level J: the flow of wave power

per unit width of the wave front

Total stored energy per unit area of the sea surface:

Flow of energy per unit width of the wave front J:

group velocity of the wave

For the case of deep water:

The «wave-power level»:

The wave height:

21
Energy content of waves
• For a sinusoidal wave of height H, the
average energy E stored on a horizontal
square metre of the water surface is:
kE =  g / 8 = 1.25 kW ·s/m4

E  kE H 2  = mass density of sea water  1020 kg/m3

g = acceleration of gravity  9.8 m/s2

• Half of this is potential energy due to water lifted

from wave troughs to wave crests. The remaining
half is kinetic energy due to the motion of the water.

Example : H  2m  E  5 kW s/m 2

The wave-power level

• The “wave-power level” (energy transport per
metre width of the wave front) is

J  cg E
On deep water the group velocity is cg=gT/4, which gives

J  k J TH 2 kJ =  g2 / 32   1 kW/m3s

Example :
T  10 s and H  2m  J  40 kW/m

22
Significant wave height
The real-sea wave height parameter is the significant wave
height. It is traditionally defined as the average of the highest
one third of the individual trough-to-crest heights Hi
(i=1,2,3,…), and is denoted by H1/3.

H1  H 2      H N / 3
H1 / 3 
N /3

H1 H2 H3 Time

Mean water level

Average zero up-cross time Tz

• The individual zero up-cross time Ti is the time interval
between two consecutive instants where the wave elevation
crosses the zero level in the upward direction. An average of
these over a certain time provides a useful measure of the
real-sea wave period. T1  T2      TN
Tz 
N

Time

T1 T2 T3

23
Wave spectrum
• A quantity derived from wave measurements is
the so-called energy spectrum S(f). It tells us how
much energy is carried by the different frequency
components in the real-sea “mixture” of waves.
For a sinusoidal wave the average stored energy
was given by
E  g H 2 / 8

• For a real sea wave we have instead


2
E   g  S ( f ) df   g H s / 16
0

Spectrally defined «significant wave height»:

Spectrally defined «wave-power level»:

24
Wave-power level in terms of
significant wave height

2
 S ( f ) df
0
 H s / 16

•Here Hs is the modern definition of significant wave

height, which in practice agrees quite well with our
previous definition H1/3. Another quantity, the so-
called wave energy period TJ, may be derived from the
wave spectrum S( f ). The wave-power level by real
sea waves is now calculated by
2
J  (k J / 2) TJ H s k J / 2  0.5 kW/s m 3

A measurement example
6
4
Height [m]

2
0
-2
-4 -6
-6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time [minutes]
150

•This time series (above) from high sea

shows that individual waves vary 100

greatly in size and form. The S(f)

corresponding energy spectrum is 50
shown to the right. For this storm wave
the significant wave height is Hs = 8 m. 0
Source: OCEANOR, Norway
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Frequency [Hz]

25
Instantaneous power:
- is this acceptable
for the grid?
Air turbine,
Pico plant

Source: Neumann et al., 2006

Hydraulic machinery,
Pelamis

Source: Henderson, 2006

Directly driven generator,

Converted power [kW]

200

150 AWS
100

50

0
14:30 14:35 14:40
Time

Graph, drawn by J. Hals, based on prototype testing data received 2007 from Teamwork Technology.

150
Real-sea spectra
100
•These are typical energy S(f)
spectra from wind-sea 50
conditions (top) and mixed
wind-sea and swell conditions 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
(bottom). Frequency [Hz]

15
•The swell contains lower
frequencies (high peak) than 10
the the wind waves (low peak). S(f)
5
•Significant wave heights: 8 m
(top) and 3 m (bottom) 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Source: OCEANOR, Norway Frequency [Hz]

26
Norwegian wave-power-level
[in kW per m wavefront].
(Torsethaugen 1990).

Who (which nations) have the

propriety right to exploit the
oceans’ wave energy?

If wave energy is being exploited

by WEC arrays ranging from
north of Shetland to south of the
Hebrides, there may be reduced
wave energy to exploit at the west
coast of Denmark and Norway.

Make international
agreements before wave-
energy has a commercial
interest!
Could any country, e.g.
Switzerland, exploit wave
energy by floating WEC arrays
in international waters of the
Atlantic?

27
Distribution of wave energy transport

24
30
40
49
30
50 70 67
89
68 53 102 22
92 41
50 60
40 30 40 11 13 100
13 10 72
19 26 13
43 15 14
10 3 50
12 19 8 8 20
12 17
13 18
11 18 14 20
20 17 12 10 11
16 34
21 12
27 9
41 20 15 30
43 24 34 23 40
33 17 37
40 25 40
50 40 60 48
24 66 50
82 84
74 33 81
29 72 100
97 42

Average wave power levels are approximate and given in kW/m of the wave front.

Seasonal variation
• The average values of wave-energy transport vary
somewhat from one year to next year. The values
vary more between seasons. On the northern
hemisphere, the average values for November and
May may differ by a factor of two or more. There
is significantly more wind energy and wave
energy in winter than in summer, although it is
opposite for solar energy. Because there may be
waves (swells) even in the absence of wind, wave
energy is more persistent than wind energy.

28
Seasonal variation at (57° N, 9° W )

• The chart shows the 160

seasonal variation of 140
wave energy transport 120
at a measurement site 100

kW/m
close to Barra in the 80

Hebrides off the 60

40
Scottish coast. The
20
annual average for the 0

Nov
Jan

Sep
May
Jul
Mar
shown year was 65
kW/m.
Based on WERATLAS, European Wave
Energy Atlas, 1996

kW/m

“Scatter”-diagram
The numbers on the graph
denote the average
Hs /m numbers of occurrences of
each Hs -Tz combination for
each 1000 wave
measurements made over
one year.

Increasing curves indicate

maximum wave steepness
1/40 and 1/20.

Declining curves indicate

constant values of wave-
power level in kW/m.
Tz /s
Figure after Ian Glendenning 1978 (cf. book # D6 in the list:
http://folk.ntnu.no/falnes/w_e/books_wave_energy.htm). Source : Ian Glendenning, 1977

29
• Average energy intensity:

• Solar energy: 100 - 200 W/m2

• Wind energy: 400 - 600 W/m2
• Wave energy: 4 - 6 kW/m2
(just below the sea surface)

Vertical distribution of wave-energy transport

0 2 4 6 kW/m2
• As we have seen, the Water level
6,0 kW/m2
water particles move in
circles with decreasing 2
radius in the depth.
Consequently, the energy 4
Depth

flow density decreases as

we go deeper in the 6

water. In fact, on deep

8
water, 95 % of the
energy transport takes 2,6 kW/m2
10 m
place between the
surface and the depth
L/4. (L is the
wavelength).
J = 40 kW/m H = 2 m and T = 10 s

30
Steps of wave-energy conversion
Primary energy conversion,
for instance to energy in
Input wave energy to
pressurised air or water or
a wave power device
hydraulic oil, by removing
energy from the wave.

Secondary energy conversion

Primary,
by turbine or hydraulic motor.
secondary and
Mechanical energy by
tertiary energy
rotating shaft.
conversion

Tertiary energy conversion by

Electrical energy
electric generator.

Schematic principle for extracting wave energy

Input energy from waves

Loss
Primary energy conversion

Energy in working fluid (air, water or hydraulic oil)

Loss
Turbine/motor

Mechanical energy in rotating shaft

Loss
Electrical generator

Electrical energy

31
Power take-off alternatives

Wave energy

Relative motion
Air flow Water flow
between bodies

Hydraulic Mechanical
pumps transmission

Air Water Hydraulic Mechanical

turbine turbine motors gear

Electrical generator
or direct use

The length size D of a wave-energy converter

(WEC) compared to one wavelength L.

Terminator: D approx. equal to or larger than L.

Attenuator: D approx. equal to or larger than L.

Point absorber (PA): D approx. equal to or smaller than L/10.

«Quasi point absorber» (QPA): Size between point

absorber and «line absorber» (terminator or attenuator).

32
Classification of WECs
- According to size and orientation
Wave front

Wave
direction

• Point absorbers • QPA • Attenuator • Terminator

(QPA = quasi point absorber)

33
34
35
Hydrostatic stiffness S of buoyant body

36
The hydrostatic
buoyancy stiffness of
floating body A
provides storage of
potential energy.

The mass of bodies A

and B, as well as the
two flywheels F,
provides storage of
kinetic energy.

Pumps or generators
connected to the
rotating flywheels may
serve as receivers of
Wave-power converter useful energy.
[proposed by K. Budal 1974]

37
Mechanical oscillator interacting with waves.

A paradox?
• Absorption of wave energy from the sea may be
considered as a phenomenon of wave interference.
Then wave energy absorption may be described by
an apparently paradoxical statement:

• To absorb a wave means to generate a wave

• or, in other words:

• To destroy a wave is to create a wave.

38
Incident wave + reflected wave = standing wave

• Incident wave

+
• Wave reflected from
fixed wall

=
• Interference result:
Standing wave composed
of incident wave and
reflected wave

“To absorb a wave means to generate a wave”

- or “to destroy a wave means to create a wave”.

• Incident wave

+ • Wave reflected from fixed wall

• Wave generation on otherwise
calm water (due to wall
oscillation)

= • The incident wave is absorbed

by moving wall because the
reflected wave is cancelled by
the generated wave.

39
In this simple example, at optimum radiated-wave
generation, the maximum absorbed energy equals 100
percent of the incident wave energy. Note also that the
required, optimum, radiated wave has the same
amplitude as the incident wave. Thus,

Observe that, in order to absorb, from the sea, the theoretically

maximum wave power, it is necessary that the wave-
absorbing oscillating system, at optimum, has an ability to
radiate as much power as the theoretically maximum
absorbed power.
This statement is valid also for systems of different geometrical
configurations, where the maximum absorbed power is less than
100 percent of the incident wave power, provided the required
optimum oscillation can be realised, that is, when no physical
amplitude limitation, or other constraint, prevents the desired
radiated wave from being realised.

Mechanical oscillator interacting with waves.

_________
____________

40
_________
____________

41
42
43
In this simple example, at optimum radiated-wave
generation, the maximum absorbed energy equals 100
percent of the incident wave energy. Note also that the
required, optimum, radiated wave has the same
amplitude as the incident wave. Thus,

Observe that, in order to absorb, from the sea, the theoretically

maximum wave power, it is necessary that the wave-
absorbing oscillating system, at optimum, has an ability to
radiate as much power as the theoretically maximum
absorbed power.
This statement is valid also for systems of different geometrical
configurations, where the maximum absorbed power is less than
100 percent of the incident wave power, provided the required
optimum oscillation can be realised, that is, when no physical
amplitude limitation, or other constraint, prevents the desired
radiated wave from being realised.

s = heave amplitude
A = amplitude of incident wave
Jd = incident wave power

P = wave power absorbed by resonant buoy [curve a]

Pe = power converted to electricity by resonant buoy [curve b]
Pe = power converted to electricity by latching-controlled buoy [curve c]

Budal, K., Falnes, J., Kyllingstad, Å. and Oltedal, G.: "Experiments with point absorbers". Proceedings of First
Symposium on Wave Energy Utilization, Gothenburg, Sweden, pp 253-282, 1979.

44
Resonant heaving body B in wave channel
with wavemaker W and beach A

pully with electric

generator/motor

Illustration from Falnes, J. and Budal, K (1978).: "Wave power conversion

by point absorbers". Norwegian Maritime Research, Vol 6, No 4, pp 2-11.

Optimal phase at resonance

Phase control by latching

45
Laboratory arrangement for latching-controlled wave-power buoy in wave channel

Budal, K., Falnes, J., Kyllingstad, Å. and Oltedal, G.: "Experiments with point absorbers". Proceedings of First
Symposium on Wave Energy Utilization, Gothenburg, Sweden, pp 253-282, 1979.

In this simple example, at optimum radiated-wave

generation, the maximum absorbed energy equals 100
percent of the incident wave energy. Note also that the
required, optimum, radiated wave has the same
amplitude as the incident wave. Thus,

Observe that, in order to absorb, from the sea, the theoretically

maximum wave power, it is necessary that the wave-
absorbing oscillating system, at optimum, has an ability to
radiate as much power as the theoretically maximum
absorbed power.
This statement is valid also for systems of different geometrical
configurations, where the maximum absorbed power is less than
100 percent of the incident wave power, provided the required
optimum oscillation can be realised, that is, when no physical
amplitude limitation, or other constraint, prevents the desired
radiated wave from being realised.

46
Side view
The wave-power “island”
illustrates the real-valued absorbed wave
power Pa versus a complex oscillation
amplitude U, where |U|2 = U U* equals the
radiated power Pr . The phase of U is
Top view chosen in order to make U real and positive
when it has the same phase as the
excitation force from the incident wave. The
optimum value U0 is a positive real quantity.

Pa,MAX = Pr,OPT = |U0|2

Pa,MAX – Pa = |U0 – U|2
These simple equations are applicable to
many different types of wave-energy
Inclined view converters (WECs). Assuming that the
power take-off (PTO) machinery is
equipped with sufficient control, we may
consider U to be an independent complex
variable. The optimum value U0 is,
however, proportional to the incident wave
amplitude A, and, moreover, it is a
function of β, the angle of wave incidence.
Figures from Falnes & Kurniawan, 2015, R. Soc. open sci.2: 140305. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.140305>

47
Three wave-power inventor pioneers

Yoshio Masuda (1925 − 2009)

Started already in 1947 with experiments to test
devices for utilising wave energy in Japan.

Stephen Salter (1938 − )

started 1973 wave-power research at the
University of Edinburgh, Scotland.

Kjell Budal (1933 − 1989)

initiated in 1973 wave-power research at NTH
(part of pre-NTNU university), Trondheim, Norway.

80 m long vessel Kaimei (= sea light) for testing

various types of wave-activated air turbines.
(Japan, late 1970s and early 1980s)

Copyright: JAMSTEC, Japan

48
The Salter duck
• In 1974 Stephen Salter
published a paper on a device
which has become known as
the “Salter duck”, the spine
“Edinburgh duck” or simply
the “Duck”, because the
device, in its pitching Mooring
oscillation, resembles a line duck
nodding duck. Several ducks
share a common spine. The
relative pitch motion between
each duck and the spine is Illustration: Jørgen Hals 1999

utilised for pumping

hydraulic fluid through a
motor.

Salter’s nodding Duck

Scotland (Stephen Salter,

University of Edinburgh)
spine

Mooring line
duck

Illustration: Jørgen Hals 1999

Illustration: Bjarne Stenberg, 2007

Research work in Edinburgh with the spine, a

Energy conversion through pumps, pressure
long tube, at least 100 m long, has later
tank, hydraulic motor an electric generator
evolved into the Pelamis project:

49
Video clip of “Pelamis” PELAMIS WAVE POWER LTD <http://www.pelamiswave.com/galleryvideo.php>.

Kjell Budal with his phase-controlled power-buoy model

(type E) in the Trondheim towing tank 1978

50
Phase-controlled power-buoy model (type E) under test in Skipsmodelltanken,
Trondheim, 1978. Video clip [also on http://folk.ntnu.no/falnes/w_e/.]

Optimal phase at resonance

Phase control by latching

51
Array of point absorbers

Figure from: Stortingsmelding [White paper] nr. 65 (1981-82): Om nye fornybare energikilder i Norge [On new renewable energy sources in Norway].
The Royal Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, Oslo, 1982

The Trondheim
point absorber

Source: K. Budal, 1981 Photo: J. Falnes, 1983

52
Budal’s phase-controlled power buoy model (type N2) at the test site in Trondheimsfjorden.

Phase-controlled power-buoy model (type E) under test in the Trondheim

Fjord, 1983. Video clip [also on http://folk.ntnu.no/falnes/w_e/.]

53
Governmental funding of wave-power R&D
in Norway and in the UK

105 GBP
or

Illustration: Per Magne Lillebekken

106 NOK

UK [1978-1992]
Norway (including NTH)
NTH (pre-NTNU university),
Trondheim
year

During the early 1980s, when research teams were ready to test models
the real sea, increased funding was needed. In stead conservative
governments in the UK and in Norway reduced funding of wave energy.

The tapered channel

• The tapered channel is a Principle:
horizontal channel which is
wide towards the sea where the
waves enter and gradually
narrows in a reservoir at the
other end. As the waves pass
through the channel, water is
lifted over the channel wall and reservoir
sea 8
into the reservoir due to the
shortage of space which occurs
as the channel gets narrower.

54
Norwave’s tapered-channel WEC (350 kW) at Toftøy [40 km
NW from Bergen], Øygarden, Norway.

Photo: NORWAVE AS, 1986 Photo: NORWAVE AS, 1986

OED (Ministry of Petroleum

and Energy) issued 1987 two
reports on NORWAVE’s and
Kvaerner’s wave-power
prototypes, 40 km off Bergen.
One report, ”Norwegian wave
power plants 1987”, with text
in Norwegian and English,
was open.
The other report,
”Bølgekraftverk Toftestallen:
Prosjektkomiteens
sluttrapport 31.12.1987”, had
only closed distribution. It
contained more detailed
information, in the Norwegian
language, only.

55
Oscillating water column (OWC)
• In an oscillating water column
Principle:
a part of the ocean surface is
trapped inside a chamber Turbine and generator

which is open to the sea below

the water line. When the
internal water surface moves
Waves
up and down in response to air
incident waves outside the
chamber, the air in the
chamber is pressed and sucked
fixed platform
through a turbine due to the
generated overpressure and
underpressure.

OED (Ministry of Petroleum By end of 1988 Kværner’s 500 kW

and Energy) issued 1987 two OWC prototype had delivered 29
reports on NORWAVE’s and MWh to the local utility
Nordhordland Kraftlag.
Kvaerner’s wave-power
prototypes, 40 km off Bergen. It seems that the
One report, ”Norwegian wave installed power
power plants 1987”, with text capacity was
in Norwegian and English, much too large!
was open.
The other report,
”Bølgekraftverk Toftestallen:
Prosjektkomiteens 8
sluttrapport 31.12.1987”, had
only closed distribution. It By end of 1991 NORWAVE’s 350
contained more detailed kW TapChan prototype had
delivered 691 MWh to the local
information, in the Norwegian
utility Nordhordland Kraftlag.
language, only.
Energy deliveries as informed by Nordhordland Kraftlag in letter 1993

56
In the early 1980s
Kværner Brug AS
planned a multi-
resonant OWC WEC
standing on 25 m deep
sea bed.

Figure from
Stortingsmelding [White Paper] nr. 65
(1981-82): Om nye fornybare energikilder i
Norge [On new renewable energy sources
in Norway].

Kværner Brug’s 500 kW

WEC of the OWC type in
a very steep cliff on
island Toftøy, 40 km NW
from Bergen. The red
part, below the generator
housing, is the housing
for a self-rectifying air
turbine.

Constructed during 1985

and destroyed by a storm
during the last week of
1988.

Foto: J. Falnes 1985

57
Array of Pelamis WEC units Array of point-absorber WEC units

Drawing copied 2016-09-13 from http://nnmrec.oregonstate.edu/pelamis-attenuator Figure from: St.meld. nr. 65 (1981-82): Om nye fornybare energikilder i Norge,, Oslo, 1982.

The central part of each Pelamis cylinder contributes less to the needed wave
generation than the two end parts. But, unfortunately, it contributes fully to the
extreme structural and mooring forces.

Point absorbers may require more sophisticated technology to be developed.

Each PA unit may, through a flexibel hose, deliver primary-converted hydraulic
energy to a commen hub unit, which contains a hydraulic motor (or turbine)
and an electric generator.

Ten point-absorber WEC units, each 200 kW, shearing a common

platform hub with 2 MW hydraulic motor and electric generator.

Proposal and drawing by Kjell Budal 1978 [cf. Preliminary design and model test of a wave-power converter: Budal's 1978 design Type E.
Technical report, Institutt for fysikk, NTH, Trondheim, 1993.]

58
The Bristol cylinder
• This wave energy device was
proposed by David Evans at the Principle:
University of Bristol in England. In
response to an incident wave the
submerged horizontal cylinder wave direction
oscillates vertically and horizontally.
With a sinusoidal wave the combined
oscillation results simply in a circular Hydraulic cylinder
motion whereby all the incident wave pump
energy may be absorbed provided the
hydraulic power take-off is able to anchors
provide for optimum amplitude and
optimum phase of the circular motion.
The hydraulic power take-off is built
into the anchors.

Artist impression of a cluster of

AWS devices
(in 3EWEC-1998 paper by Rademakers,
van Schie, Schuitema, Vriesema and
Gardner )

A phase-controlled submerged “Archimedes Installation at EMEC

pulsating-volume device with Next Year”, Maritime Journal, 30
hydraulic power take-off July 2008.
(Budal patent. Application filed 1977)

59
AWS
“Archimedes
Wave Swing”

Illustration in the paper “Archimedes

Installation at EMEC Next Year”,
Maritime Journal, 30 July 2008.
http://www.maritimejournal.com/archive101/2007/september/renewables/archimedes_installation_at_emec_next_year

David Ross:."Power from

the Waves", (Oxford
University Press, 1995)
(ISBN 0-19-856511-9)

An easy-read book
written by the British
free-lance journalist
David Ross.

60
David Ross, in his 1995 book ”Power from the Waves” reports
(p.180) from a wave-energy meeting in Brussels 1991:

The discussion saw another round in the debate - - - about whether

it was best to go to sea sooner or later. Professor Salter insisted:
Stephen Salter

I don’t want to be the first wave power device at sea. I want to be

the last one. I want to make all the mistakes in private, with
instruments to tell me what mistakes I have made so that I don’t
do it again. I want to do all the difficult things in the laboratory.
There was enthusiasm for air ships, but the R101 crashed.
Airships finally died when the Hindenburg died. If you had a
spectacular disaster with one wave energy device, you could drag
everything down, too.

Recommendations:
To make large-scale utilisation of ocean-wave energy a future reality,
I recommend a 3-step development program as follows:

Establish international agreements concerning ownership of

the energy that ocean waves may transport, possibly
thousands of kilometres, across offshore national
territorial borders.
R&D&D programmes for various kinds of single wave-energy
conversion (WEC) units of power take-off (PTO) capacity in
the range of 100-300 kW.
When such WEC units, deployed in the sea, have
demonstrated an annual energy production equal to the
PTO’s power capacity multiplied by at least 2500 hours, they
may become candidates for a R&D&D programme on wave
power plants consisting of a huge number of mass-
produced cooperating WEC units.

61
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Many of the illustrations

and slides used in this
presentation were made by
Jørgen Hals
1999

THE END SLUTT

SLUTT

Kopiert frå ”Vårt Land”, 2008-08-12, side 3

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