If there are already some rain gage stations in a
catchment, the optimal number of stations that should
exist to have an assigned percentage of error in the
estimation of the mean rainfall is obtained by the
statistical analysis as;
where:
N = optimal number of stations
e = allowable degree of error in percent
Cv = Coefficient of variation in percent
S = Standard deviation
A catchment has six rain gage stations. In a month,
the monthly rainfalls recorded by the rain gauges
are as follows (given table below). For a 10% error
in the estimation of the mean rainfall, calculate the
optimum number of stations in the catchment.
Given:
M = 6 rain gauge
ε = 10%
Required:
N = optimum number of stations in the catchment
Solution:
a. Solve for the mean precipitation,
Solution (continued):
b. Determine the standard deviation;
Rainfall
Station (Pi – Pmean)2
(mm)
A 82.0 1339.56
B 102.9 246.49
C 180.3 3806.89
D 110.3 68.89
E 98.8 392.04
F 136.7 327.61
Sum = 711.0 6181.48
Solution (continued):
c. Solve for the coeff. of variation & optimum no. of stations
.
.
=
If the normal annual precipitation at various stations
within about 10% of the normal annual precipitation
station X; Arithmetic mean method
If the normal annual precipitations vary considerably,
use the normal ratio method
where:
Px = estimated precipitation volume at the missing data
station X, depth
P1, P2, PM = estimated precipitation volume of the stations
1, 2, and M, depth
Nx = average annual precipitation at the missing data
station X, depth
N1, N2, NM = average annual precipitation at the adjacent
stations, depth
The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C, and D in
a basin are 81, 68, 76, and 92 cm respectively. In the
year 1980, the station D was inoperative and stations A,
B, C recorded annual precipitations of 91, 72, and 80
cm respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D in that
year.
Given:
Required:
PD = precipitation at station D in the year 1980
Solution:
Part of a rain gage collector is covered during a storm
event by debris. The debris reflected rain from the
collector. Upon examination of the collector, it was
found that 30 % of the collector area was covered
during rainfall. If the total amount of rain recorded was
15 mm, what would be an estimate of the actual
amount assuming a standard 203 mm diameter
collector?
Double Mass Curve Technique
• Let a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the
neighbourhood of the problem station X is selected.
• Arrange the data of X stn rainfall and the average of
the neighbouring stations in reverse chronological
order (from recent to old record)
• Accumulate the precipitation of station X (ΣPx) and
the average values of the group base stations
(ΣPave.) starting from the latest record.
• Plot the (ΣPx)against (ΣPave.) as shown on the next
figure.
• A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is
observed that indicates a change in precipitation
regime of station X, i.e inconsistency.
• Therefore, it should be corrected by the factor
shown on the next slide
Mass Curve of Rainfall
plot of the accumulated precipitation against time,
plotted in chronological order.
Hyetograph
Plot of the intensity of rainfall against the time
interval
Rain gauges rainfall represent only point sampling of
the areal distribution of a storm
The important rainfall for hydrological analysis is a
rainfall over an area, such as over the catchment
To convert the point rainfall values at various stations
to in to average value over a catchment, the following
methods are used:
• Arithmetic – Mean Method
• Thiessen Method
• Isohyetal Method
• Reciprocal – distance – squared method
1. Arithmetic Mean Method
the simplest method of determining areal average
rainfall
Satisfactory if the gages are uniformly distributed
over the area; and
the individual gage measurements do not vary
greatly about the mean
where: Pi = rainfall at the ith station
N = no. of rain gauge stations within
the catchment
Theissen Method
Rain gages are considered more representative of
the area in question than others; relative weights
may be assigned to the gages in computing the
areal average
Assumption: At any point in the watershed, the
rainfall is the same as that of the nearest gage so
the depth recorded at a given gage is applied out
to a distance halfway to the next station in any
direction.
P1
A1 A2 P3
A3
P2
A5 P4
P5 A4 A7
P7
A6
P6
Thiessen Polygon Method: Source: LiDAR Surveys and Flood
Mapping of Amburayan River. UP-
TCAGP, 2017.
Theissen Method
where: Pi = rainfall at the ith station
Ai = corresponding area of the Thiessen
polygon at the ith station.
N = no. of rain gauge stations within the
catchment
Ai/A = weightage factor for each station
Isohyetal Method
An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏 𝟏 𝒏
𝟏 𝟐 𝒏 𝟏
where:
P1,P2 ,...,Pn = values of the isohyets
A1,A2,...,An = inter-isohyets area respectively
A = total catchment area.
12.0 10.0 8.0
14.2 6.0
6.8
A D
A5
10.8
12.0 C
A4
A1
A3 E
10.0 B
9.6 8.1 5.2
G
A2
8.0
7.4 F 6.0
Reciprocal-Distance-Squared Method
The influence of the rainfall at a gaged point on the
computation of rainfall at an ungaged point is
inversely proportional to the distance between the
two points.
The shape of the drainage basin can be approximated by a
polygon, whose vertices are located at the following coordinates:
(5, 5), (-5, 5), (-5,-5), (0.-10), and (5,-5). The rainfall amounts of a
storm were recorded by a number of rain gages situated within
and nearby the basin as follows:
All coordinates are expressed in kilometers. Determine the
average rainfall on the basin by (a) arithmetic-mean method, (b)
the Thiessen method, and (c) the isohyetal method.
• For the Arithmetic-Mean Method, consider only those
stations located inside the catchment.
• Thiessen Polygon Method:
Isohyetal Method:
In many design problems related to watershed such as
runoff disposal, erosion control, highway construction,
culvert design, it is necessary to know the rainfall
intensities of different durations and different return
periods.
The curve that shows the inter-dependency between i
(cm/hr), D (hour) and T (year) is called IDF curve.
where:
i = rainfall intensity, cm/hr
D = duration of rainfall, hr
t = time for which the intensity of rainfall remains
maximum, hr
F = total rainfall, cm
where:
i = rainfall intensity, cm/hr
D = duration of rainfall, hr
t = time for which the intensity of rainfall remains
maximum, hr
F = total rainfall, cm
where:
i = rainfall intensity, cm/hr
T = frequency of rainfall (return period), yr
D = duration of rainfall, hr
a, b, m, n = locality constants
• If T is fixed and n is unity,
• Dillon Formula
where:
i = rainfall intensity, mm/hr
D = duration of rainfall, minutes
T = recurrence interval, years
• Bilham Formula
• Holland Formula
where:
R = Rainfall depth, mm
D = duration of rainfall, minutes
N = no. of occurencences in 10 years
Rainfall Intensity - Duration Frequency Analysis Data for Baguio City
Based on 66 years of record
Computed Extreme Values (in mm) of Precipitation
T (yrs) 10 mins 20 mins 30 mins 1 hr 2 hrs 3 hrs 6 hrs 12 hrs 24 hrs
2 26.9 39.3 49.1 72.1 108.3 134.9 197.6 250.1 351.5
5 49.5 72.3 90.6 128.6 188.5 237.4 329.3 427.9 559.2
10 64.4 94.2 118.1 166.0 241.6 305.2 416.5 545.6 695.8
15 72.8 106.5 133.6 187.1 271.6 343.5 465.7 612.0 774.4
20 78.7 115.2 144.4 201.9 292.6 370.3 500.2 658.5 828.7
25 83.3 121.8 152.8 213.2 308.7 391.0 526.7 694.3 870.5
50 97.3 142.3 178.6 248.3 358.5 454.6 608.5 804.7 999.4
100 111.2 162.7 204.1 283.1 407.9 517.7 689.6 914.2 1127.4
Equivalent Average Intensity (in mm/hr) of Computed Extreme Values
T (yrs) 10 mins 20 mins 30 mins 1 hr 2 hrs 3 hrs 6 hrs 12 hrs 24 hrs
2 161.5 117.9 98.2 72.1 54.2 45.0 32.9 20.8 14.6
5 296.8 217.0 181.2 128.6 94.3 79.1 54.9 35.7 23.3
10 386.4 282.6 236.2 166.0 120.8 101.7 69.4 45.5 29.0
15 437.0 319.6 267.2 187.1 135.8 114.5 77.6 51.0 32.3
20 472.4 345.5 288.9 201.9 146.3 123.4 83.4 54.9 34.5
25 499.6 365.5 305.6 213.2 154.4 130.3 87.8 57.9 36.3
50 583.6 426.9 357.1 248.3 179.3 151.5 101.4 67.1 41.6
100 667.0 488.0 408.2 283.1 204.0 172.6 114.9 76.2 47.0
source: the HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL DATA APPLICATIONS SECTION (HMDAS)
Hydro - Meteorology Division, PAGASA
Synthetic 24-h Rainfall
Hyetograph for
various Return
Periods
Research:
ALTERNATING
BLOCK
METHOD
Outflow Hydrograph from
a synthetic hyetograph.
Source: LiDAR Surveys
and Flood Mapping of
Amburayan River. UP-
TCAGP, 2017.
Rainfall and Outflow
Data. Source: LiDAR
Surveys and Flood
Mapping of Amburayan
River. UP-TCAGP, 2017.
Outflow Hydrograph.
Source: LiDAR Surveys
and Flood Mapping of
Amburayan River. UP-
TCAGP, 2017.
There is a single independent regressor variable x and
a single dependent random variable Y, the data may
be represented by the pairs of observations {(xi,yi);
i=1, 2, 3, …, n}
Where the regression coefficients α and β are
parameters to be estimated from the sample data.
Denoting their estimates by a and b, respectively, we
can then estimate by from the sample regression
where:
4. Determine the rainfall depths and intensity for storm
duration of 24 hours with a return period of 5, 10, 25,
and 50 years from the given data below; use Hazen
formula.
P
Return Rainfall
Period, yrs Depth, mm
5 50.04
10 56.27
25 64.52
50 70.76
5. You are required to design an urban sewer system for
a return period of 10 years with rainfall duration of 2
hours. Compute the rainfall intensity using the Dillon,
Bilham and Holland equations.
Probable maximum precipitation (PMP)
• The greatest or extreme rainfall for a given duration that
is physically over a station or basin.
• Operational point of view: rainfall over a basin which
would produce a flood with virtually no risk of being
exceeded.
where:
= mean of annual maximum rainfall series
= standard deviation of the series
• K = a frequency factor w/c depends upon the statistical
distribution of the series, number of years of record and
the return period.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg
Following are the data of a storm as recorded in a self –
recording rain gauge at a station:
Time from the
beginning of 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
storm (minutes)
Cumulative
19 41 48 68 91 124 152 160 166
rainfall (mm)
a. Plot the hyetograph of the storm.
b. Plot the maximum intensity – duration curve of the
storm.
Bedient, et al. (2013). Hydrology and Floodplain Analysis. Pearson
Education Limited. England.
Chow, et al.(1988). Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Singapore.
Mays, L.W. (2011). Water Resources Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
USA.
Subramanya, K. (2008). Engineering Hydrology. Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited. India.
UP & UP-Baguio (2017). LiDAR-Surveys-and-Flood-Mapping-of-
Amburayan-River. UP Training Center for Applied Geodesy and
Photogrammetry (TCAGP). Retrieved from:
https://dream.upd.edu.ph/assets/Publications/LiDAR-Technical-
Reports/UPB/LiDAR-Surveys-and-Flood-Mapping-of-Amburayan-
River.pdf. August 01, 2020.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ThreeGorgesDam-
China2009.jpg
