The 

Hong Kong Polytechnic University 
Department of Electrical Engineering 

High Voltage Engineering
EE509
Prof. Derek S.W. Or

2016 / 2017
Contents
Chapter 1  Introduction to Electrical Insulation ............................................................................... 1-1 
1.1  Electric Fields and Dielectric Breakdown ........................................................................................ 1-1 
1.1.1  Electric Fields ..................................................................................................................... 1-1 
1.1.2  Dielectric Breakdown ......................................................................................................... 1-4 
1.2  Fundamentals of Gaseous, Liquid, and Solid Insulation and Breakdown ........................................ 1-5 
1.2.1  Gaseous Insulation and Breakdown ................................................................................... 1-5 
1.2.2  Liquid Insulation and Breakdown ...................................................................................... 1-6 
1.2.3  Solid Insulation and Breakdown ........................................................................................ 1-7 
1.3  Industrial Applications of Electrical Insulating Materials ................................................................ 1-9 
1.3.1  Essences of Applications .................................................................................................... 1-9 
1.3.2  Applications in Rotating Machines .................................................................................. 1-11 
1.3.3  Applications in Cables ...................................................................................................... 1-12 
1.3.4  Applications in Power Transformers ................................................................................ 1-13 
1.3.5  Applications in Power Capacitors .................................................................................... 1-15 
1.4  Supplementary Information on Insulating Materials ...................................................................... 1-17 
1.4.1  Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Gas ....................................................................................... 1-17 
1.4.2  Petroleum Oil (Transformer Oil) ...................................................................................... 1-20 
1.4.3  Solid Dielectrics ............................................................................................................... 1-22 
1.5  References....................................................................................................................................... 1-36

EE509 High Voltage Engineering ii

Chapter 1
Introduction to Electrical Insulation

In modern times, high voltages are used in a wide variety of applications covering electrical power systems,
renewable energy systems, transportation systems, communication systems, medical equipment, research
laboratories, etc. These applications are essential to sustain modern civilization. For examples, high voltages are
utilized in the transmission of large bulks of power over long distances; are employed to energize high-speed and
intercity railway systems; are used to sustain the operation of power transmitters; are deployed in X-ray tubes for
medical and industrial equipment; and are applied in laboratories for nuclear research. The various conditions
under which high voltage equipment are used require careful design of their electrical insulation. The principal
media of electrical insulation are: (1) gases (including vacuum), (2) liquids, (3) solids, and (4) a combination of
them (e.g., coils/transformers with epoxy molding and oil impregnation). For reliability, safety, and economy
reasons, it is important for electrical engineers to have knowledge of electrical insulating materials and insulation
failures. In this chapter, some of the general principles, concepts, materials, and applications relating to electrical
insulation are introduced.

1.1 Electric Fields and Dielectric Breakdown

1.1.1 Electric Fields

The electric field intensity E at any location in an electrostatic field is the ratio of the force acting on an
infinitely small (point) charge at that location to the charge itself as the charge decreases to zero. The force F acting
on any charge q at that point in the field is given by Coulomb’s law as follows:

. (1.1)

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The electric flux density D (units: C/m2) associated with the electric field intensity E (units: V/m) is

, (1.2)

where = (units: F/m) is the permittivity of the (dielectric) medium in which the electric field exists; is the
relative permittivity; and = 8.85410-12 F/m is the permittivity of free space.

The work done on a charge when moved in an electric field is defined as the electric potential. The electric
potential (units: V), in integral form, is expressed as

, (1.3)

where l is the path through which the charge is moved. The electric field intensity E, in point form, is numerically
equal to the electric potential gradient by

, (1.4)

where (gradient, read “del” operator) is a vector differential operator defined as

≡ ̂ ̂

in the rectangular coordinate.

It is noted that electrons can move freely in a conductor under the influence of an electric field. This means that
the charges are distributed inside and over the surface of the conductor such that E = 0 in all places of the
conductor. Since E in Eq. (1.4) vanishes, it is necessary that is constant inside and on the surface of the
conductor; that is, the conductor has an “equipotential” surface with maximal charges and currents.

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In the presence of an electric field, a coordinate movement of free electrons occurs but that the average space
charge density remains zero at any point in the conductive medium. This movement of free electrons is referred to
as an electric current and can be described as a current density vector J. In a conductive medium, the relationship
between J and E is known as Ohm’s law:

, (1.5)

where  is the conductivity of the medium (units: S). The electric (conduction) current I passing through some
open surface is defined as the net positive charge Q passing through that surface per unit of time t:

. (1.6)

A simple capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a dielectric medium. If one conductor surface
contains positive charge +Q and the other has negative charge –Q, and if the potential difference between them is
, the capacitance of such a capacitor is defined as the ratio of charge Q to the potential difference by

. (1.7)

If the charge is not distributed uniformly over the two conductor surfaces, and if the charge density is and the
electric field intensity in the dielectric medium is E, then
∬
, (1.8)

where S is the closed surface containing the charge and l is the path through which the charge is moved.

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1.1.2 Dielectric Breakdown

In high voltage equipment, the important materials used are: (1) Conductors and (2) Insulators. Conductors
promote the flow of electric currents, while insulators prevent the flow of electric currents to undesired paths or
circuits. If, due to some reasons, the flow of an electric current deviates from the desired path or circuit, the electric
potential associated with that path or circuit will drop as in the case of “short circuit”.

Normally, all dielectrics are good insulators at sufficiently low magnitudes of electric field intensities. However,
as the applied electric field increases, the electrons bound to the molecules of the dielectric will be subject to higher
forces as reflected by Eq. (1.1): , and some of them will be “free” from their molecular bonding. The
electrons move in the opposite direction to the applied electric field, thus creating electric current as indicated by
Eq. (1.6): / . This is a temporary phenomenon in gases in which a combination occurs when the electric
field is removed, but is a partial or permanent phenomenon in liquids and solids. The phenomenon is called
dielectric breakdown, and the magnitude of an electric field leading to the dielectric breakdown and destroy of the
insulation properties of dielectric materials is called dielectric breakdown strength. Dielectric breakdown
strength is usually expressed in kV/cm, MV/cm, or MV/m. The basic ideas of the electrical insulating materials and
their breakdown mechanisms are presented in later sections, while their details are discussed in later chapters.

Besides the dielectric breakdown strength of insulating materials, the electric field stress developed in
insulating materials when subjected to a high voltage is another important parameter in high voltage engineering.
According to Eq. (1.4): , the electric field stress to which an insulating material is subject to is equal to
E, and is numerically equal to . In other words, the dielectric breakdown strength of an insulating material can
be defined as the maximum dielectric stress that the material can withstand. It can also be characterized by the
maximum electric field stress required to cause a breakdown in a dielectric insulation. The dielectric breakdown
strength of insulating materials depends on a variety of parameters such as pressure, temperature, humidity, field
configurations, nature of applied voltage, imperfections in dielectric materials, electrode materials, surface
conditions of electrodes, etc. An understanding of the failure of the insulation will be possible by the study of the
insulation breakdown mechanisms to be talked in the following chapters.

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1.2 Fundamentals of Gaseous, Liquid, and Solid Insulation and Breakdown

1.2.1 Gaseous Insulation and Breakdown

Breakdown in gases occurs as a result of collision ionization. Electrons can be emitted from the cathode
electrode if the electric field stress is 100–1,000 kV/cm due to field emission. Electrons in the outermost orbit bear
the least attraction forces from the central nucleus, so they can be “free” easily by the collision of electrons.
Electrons get multiplied in an exponential manner, and if the applied electric field stress is sufficiently large,
breakdown occurs. The breakdown strength of gases increases steadily with the gap distance between the
electrodes, while the electric field stress reduces greatly from ~30 kV/cm for small distances of several centimeters
to ~6 kV/cm for large distances of several meters under uniform fields. For very large gaps as in lightning, the
average stress reduces to 1–3 kV/cm. The breakdown in gases can be described by Townsend and Streamer
breakdown mechanisms.

Air at atmospheric pressure is the most common gaseous insulation with the breakdown strength of
~100 kV/cm. High pressure (or compressed) gases have relatively larger breakdown strengths because free
electrons have been intentionally attached to neutral gas molecules to form negative ions via an electron attachment
process. Nitrogen (N2) was the firstly used high pressure gas due to its inertness and chemical stability, but its
breakdown strength is the same as that of air. Other practical insulating gases are carbon dioxide (CO2),
dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) (a nonflammable hydrocarbons popularly known as Freon), and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6). Among them, SF6 has the most attractive arc quenching properties and breakdown strength of
~250 kV/cm (~2.5 times larger than N2 and CO2 at atmospheric pressure).

Vacuum is the best insulator with breakdown strengths up to 10,000 kV/cm, limited only by emission from the
electrode surfaces. Breakdown strength decreases to <100 kV/cm for gap distance of several centimeters. Under
high vacuum conditions where pressures are as low as 10-3–10-6 torr (1 torr = 1 mm of Hg), breakdown cannot
generally occur. Vacuum insulation is used in particle accelerators, X-ray and field emission tubes, electron
microscopes, capacitors, circuit breakers, etc.

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1.2.2 Liquid Insulation and Breakdown

Liquids are mainly used to provide the dual purpose of electrical insulation and heat conduction (or removal).
The most attractive feature of liquid insulation is the self-healing of puncture paths. That is, temporary failures due
to overvoltage are reinsulated quickly by liquid flow to the attacked area. However, discharged products may
deposit on solid insulation supports, leading to surface breakdown over the solid supports.

Highly purified liquids have breakdown strengths as high as 1,000 kV/cm, being ~10 times higher than air and
N2. Under actual service conditions, however, the breakdown strength reduces greatly due to the presence of
impurities. The breakdown mechanism is the same as the gas breakdown in highly purified liquids, but in
commercial liquids, the breakdown mechanisms are significantly changed by the presence of the impurities (e.g.,
gas or vapor bubbles, moisture, water droplets, solid particles, etc.) with several times reduction in the breakdown
strengths in general.

The important electrical properties of liquid insulation include dielectric strength, conductivity, flash point, gas
content, viscosity, dielectric constant, dissipation factor, stability, etc. Petroleum oils (transformer oils) are the
most common commercial liquids with breakdown strengths of ~150 kV/cm. Askarels (the generic name for a
number of synthetic chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons; very toxic) (200–250 kV/cm) and silicone oils (300–400
kV/cm) are used in transformers and capacitors due to their high operating temperatures in excess of 200 ºC.
Organic esters (including castor oils) (~200 kV/cm) and polybutanes are good for high voltage energy storage
capacitors because of their low dielectric losses. Hexanes (~300 kV/cm) are useful for cables.

In practical applications, liquids are normally used at much reduced electric field stress levels of 50–60 kV/cm
to minimize the effect of heating when the equipment is continuously operated. In applications like high voltage
bushings where the liquid only fills up the voids in the solid dielectrics, it can be used at elevated electric field
stress levels of 100–200 kV/cm.

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1.2.3 Solid Insulation and Breakdown

Homogenous and truly perfect solids have breakdown strengths as high as 10,000 kV/cm, being 10 times higher
than liquids and 100 times larger than air. The breakdown in solids occurs over the surface rather than in the solid
themselves so that the surface insulation failure is the most frequent cause of trouble in practice.

When breakdown occurs on the surface of a solid insulator, it can be a simple flashover on the surface or
formation of a conducting path on the surface called tracking, both resulting in the degradation of the insulation.
Surface flashover often occurs in the case when the solid insulator is immersed in a liquid dielectric. Porcelain (a
ceramic) insulators for use in power transmission lines are designed to have a long path over the surface, typically
20–30 times greater than that through the solid, but yet surface breakdown is still a frequent type of failure.

The failure of solid insulation themselves is called treeing. The phenomenon occurs when imperfections appear
either at the interfaces between the solid insulators and the conductors or inside the solid insulators.

The failure of solid insulation by discharges in general is called partial discharges (PDs). Partial discharges
may occur in the internal voids and cavities of the solids. The energy dissipated in the partial discharges causes
further deterioration of the cavity walls and gives rise to further evolution of gas. This is a cumulative process
eventually leading to breakdown. Partial discharges are receiving much attention today since it determines the life
versus stress characteristics of a solid insulator. In practice, it is impossible to completely eliminate partial
discharges, but it is possible to control them at a certain level by the expected operating life of the equipment. For
high voltage applications, cast epoxy resin (a thermosetting polymer) can solve many problems, but great care
should be taken during casting. Vacuum impregnation of the insulation can also help to minimize the effect of the
partial discharges. High voltage switchgear, bushings, cables, and transformers are typical devices for which partial
discharges should be considered in design.

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As an im mportant supplementary to electrical so olid conducto ors and insulaators, Fig. 1..1 shows thee intrinsic
p
physical properties of the th
hree basic cattegories of sollid materials: (1) Metals, (2
2) Ceramics, and
a (3) Polymmers.

Fig. 1.1 Intrinsic physical

p prop
perties of meta
als, ceramics, and
a polymers.

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1.3 Industrial Applications of Electrical Insulating Materials

1.3.1 Essences of Applications

There is no piece of electrical equipment that does not need electrical insulation to prevent the flow of electric
current to undesired paths or circuits. Electrical insulation is used wherever there is a potential difference between
adjacent conducting bodies that carry currents. There are four main areas where electrical insulation must be
applied. They are:

(a) Between coils and earth (phase-to-earth),

(b) Between coils of different phases (phase-to-phase),
(c) Between turns in a coil (inter-turn), and
(d) Between the coils of the same phase (inter-coil).

There are three main categories of electrical insulating materials: (1) Gases, (2) Liquids, and (3) Solids. While
insulation is primarily used to resist electric field stresses, the performance of an insulator depends on its operating
temperature. The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of its chemical deterioration and the lower the useful
life will result. Thus, it is required to determine the operating temperature limit for insulation in order to ensure
safe operation over its expected life. In the field of electrical insulation, the insulating materials are generally
grouped into four different classes as follows:

Class O: Up to 90 ºC Organic materials (papers, polymers, woods, cottons, pressboards,

waxes, etc.) without impregnation.
Class A: Up to 105 ºC Organic materials with impregnation.
Class B: Up to 130 ºC Inorganic materials (glasses, ceramics, mica, etc.) with a binder.
Class C: No specific limit fixed Inorganic materials without a binder.

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With the development of newer insulating materials, such as plastics and silicones, during the middle of the last
century, a need was felt to reorganize the classification of the insulating materials. This led IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) to come up with the following new classes:

Class Y (formerly O): 90 ºC Paper, cotton, silk, natural rubber, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), etc.
without impregnation.
Class A: 105 ºC Same as Class Y but with impregnation, plus nylon.
Class E: 120 ºC Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (terylene fiber, melinex film),
cellulose triacetate, polyurethanes (PU), polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
enamel.
Class B: 130 ºC Mica, fiberglass (alkali free alumino borosilicate), bituminized
asbestos, Bakelite (phenolics), polyester (PET) enamel.
Class F: 155 ºC As Class B but with epoxy- and alkyd-based resins.
Class H: 180 ºC As Class B but with silicone resin binder, silicone rubber, aromatic
polyamide (nomex paper and fiber), polyimide film (enamel, varnish
and film), and stermide enamel.
Class C: >180 ºC As Class B but with suitable inorganic binders; Teflon
(polytetraflouroethylene, PTFE).

The temperatures mentioned above can only be regarded as an index to compare the various insulating
materials; they cannot be treated as the limiting operating temperatures. All the standards permit the equipment to
work up to these temperatures, but in practice, certain differentials are allowed because of the overloads,
manufacturing advantages, and economics.

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1
1.3.2 Appliications in Rotating M
Machines

Rotating machines
m are normally diviided into two groups: (1) L Low Voltage Machines witth ratings <6..6 kV and
( High Voltage Machinees. High voltaage machiness with ratingss >22 kV ratiing are not usually built due
(2) d to the
d
difficulty in innsulating ultraahigh voltagees. Table 1.1 shows
s the various materialss used in mod
dern rotating machines.
m
T two extreeme classes, Class
The C Y (90 ºCC) and Class C (>180 ºC), find no appliccation in rotatting machiness. Class E
(
(120 ºC), which has been widely
w n low voltage machines forr over 20 yearrs, is now bein
used in ng replaced bby Class F
(
(155 ºC) for higher
h voltagee machines. Also,
A Class F iis being increaasingly used in
i place of Class B (130 ºC
C). Hence,
C
Class F appeaars to be the insulation of the future. Considerable progress
p has been
b made in recent years to reduce
t size of thee machines fo
the or a given ratinng by using Class
C º and Class C, particularlly, for small machines.
H (180 ºC) m
H
However, thee costs of Claass H (with siilicones) and Class C (witth Teflon) aree very high, anda they are onlyo used
u
under special conditions lik ke severe overrloads in tracttion motors an nd mill motorrs.

T
Table 1.1 Various materialss used in modern rotating machines.
m

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1.3.3 Applications in Cables

The physical properties required for wire and cable insulation depend on the type of application. Electrically,
they should also have low dielectric permittivity, dielectric loss, and power factor but high dielectric strength and
insulation resistance. Mechanically, they should have good elongation, tensile strength, and toughness to withstand
handling during installation and service. Thermally, they should have excellent resistance to aging at high
temperatures and to withstand long exposure to sunlight and various chemicals. For underwater environment, they
should have very low water absorption. For low-temperature environment, they should not become stiff and brittle.

Table 1.2 gives the various insulating materials for cables and their maximum cable operating voltages and
range of operating temperatures. Paper-insulated, lead-sheathed cables are still used because of their reliability,
high dielectric strength, low dielectric loss, and long life, but low operating temperatures (<100 ºC) in general.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE) are commonly used in low and medium voltage (<3.3 kV) cables.
Teflon (PTFE) is best-suited for high voltage (<5 kV) and temperature (<250 ºC) operations. Silicone rubber forms
very little carbon when destroyed by fire, and as such it continues to function even after the fire. It is thus used for
aircraft cables where contamination with aircraft fuel can occur at high temperatures.

Table 1.2 Some important insulating materials for cables.

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1.3.4 Applications in Power Transformers

Transformers are liable to lightning and other high voltage surges, so the insulation has to withstand very high
impulse voltages many times the power frequency operating voltages. The transformer insulation is broadly
divided into five main areas:

(a) Conductor or turn-to-turn insulation,

(b) Coil-to-coil insulation,
(c) Low voltage coil-to-earth insulation,
(d) High voltage coil-to-low voltage coil insulation, and
(e) High voltage coil-to-ground insulation.

For (a), organic enamel is directly applied on the conductor in smaller rating transformers, whereas paper or
glass tape is wrapped on the rectangular conductors in higher rating transformers.

For (b), Kraft paper is used in smaller transformers, whereas thick radial spacers made of pressboard, glass
fabric, or porcelain are used in higher rating transformers.

For (c), (d), and (e), solid tubes combined with liquid- or gas-filled spacers are used to help in removing the
heat from the core and coil structure and also in improving the insulation strengths.

Oil-impregnated paper and pressboard are extensively used in liquid-filled transformers. However, the lack of
thermal stability at higher temperatures limits their use in continuously operated transformers up to 105 ºC. Also,
paper absorbs moisture very rapidly from the atmosphere so that it should be kept free of moisture during its life in
transformers.

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Transformer oil (petroleum oil) provides the required dielectric strength and insulation, besides cooling the
transformer by circulating itself through the core and the coil structure. However, it should be in the liquid state
over the complete operating temperature range of -40 – +50 ºC. The transformer oil gets oxidized when exposed to
oxygen (O2) at high temperatures, resulting in the formation of undesirable products such as peroxides, water,
organic acids, and sludge. These products cause chemical deterioration of the paper insulation and the metal parts
of the transformer. Sludge, being heavy, reduces the heat transfer by forming a heat insulating layer on the coil
structure, the core, and the tank walls. In present-day transformers, the oxidation problem is minimized by using
sealed transformers, by filling the air space with N2 gas, and by providing O2 absorbers like activated clay or
alumina.

When an arc discharge occurs inside a transformer, the oil decomposition occurs and produces explosible
products of hydrogen and hydrocarbon gases. Thus, oil-insulated transformers are seldom used inside buildings or
other hazardous locations like mines, but dry-type and liquid (askarel)- or gas (SF6)-filled transformers are used
instead. Askarel is a fireproof liquid, more stable to oxidation and arcing, and does not form acids or sludge, at the
expense of giving out very toxic and paper insulation-attackable hydrochloric acid. Also, askarel cannot be used in
high voltage transformers, because the impulse strength of askarel-impregnated paper is very low compared to that
of oil-impregnated paper. Moreover, its dielectric strength deteriorates rapidly at high voltages and at high
frequencies releasing hydrochloric acid.

Even today, there is no perfect all purpose transformer fluid. In recent years, progress has been made with the
use of fluorocarbon liquids and SF6 gas. SF6-insulated transformers become popular, but fluorocarbon liquids are
not because of their high cost.

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1.3.5 Applications in Power Capacitors

Power capacitors are indispensable for power system administration, voltage regulation of power transmission
systems, and improvement of power factor of power distribution networks. They are made in simple units with
voltage ratings of 220–13,800 V with kVAR ratings varying from 0.5–25 kVAR. They are generally formed by
several layers of insulating paper of adequate thickness and aluminum foil of 6 μm thickness as electrodes
interleaved and wound. Single units are connected in parallel depending on the rating of the capacitor unit to be
manufactured. These are placed in containers hermetically sealed, thoroughly dried, and then impregnated with
insulating oil.

The insulation paper should have high dielectric strength, low dielectric loss, high dielectric constant, uniform
thickness, and minimum conducting particles. Polypropylene (PP) film has generally good properties, but paper is
still widely used mainly due to the cost.

The impregnating oils should provide high dielectric strength, dielectric constant equal to that of paper, high
permeability to paper, and sufficient viscosity to enter the voids in paper. Their flash and solidifying points should
be >120 ºC and <-10 ºC, respectively. Mineral oil and synthetic oil (askarels) are popular. Mineral oil-based
capacitors are quite expensive, while askarel-based capacitors are harmful to the environment and humans. The
dielectric properties of the tissue paper and impregnating oils are given in Tables 1.3 and 1.4.

Aluminum foil of 6 μm thickness is widely used as the electrode material because of its high tensile strength,
low specific resistance, high melting point, low specific gravity, low cost, and easy availability.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 1-15

T
Table 1.3 Pro
operties of tisssue paper.

T
Table 1.4 Pro
operties of imp
pregnating oills.

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1.4 Supplementary Information on Insulating Materials

1.4.1 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF 6 ) Gas

Generally, the preferred properties of a gaseous dielectric for high voltage applications are:
(a) High dielectric strength,
(b) Thermal stability and chemical inactivity towards materials of construction,
(c) Non-flammability and physiological inertness,
(d) Low temperature of condensation,
(e) Good heat transfer, and
(f) Ready availability at moderate cost.

Of the above properties, dielectric strength is the most important property of a gaseous dielectric for practical
use. The dielectric strength of gases is comparable with those of solid and liquid dielectrics (Fig. 1.2). This feature
of high dielectric strength of gases is attributed to the molecular complexity and the high rates of electron
attachment. In recent years, the dielectric properties of many complex chlorinated and fluorinated molecular
compounds have also been studied (Fig. 1.3).

The physical and chemical properties of some of the commercially important insulating gases are shown in
Table 1.5. From the figures and the table, it is seen that SF6 has high dielectric strength and low liquification
temperature, and it can be used over a wide range of operating conditions. SF6 also has excellent arc-quenching
properties. Thus, it is widely used as an insulating as well as arc-quenching medium in high voltage equipment
such as high voltage cables, current and voltage transformers, circuit breakers, and metal-enclosed substations. It is
also seen from the table that an addition of 30 % SF6 to air (by volume) increases the dielectric strength of air by
100%. One of the qualitative effects of mixing SF6 to air is to reduce the overall cost of the gas, and at the same
time attaining relatively high dielectric strength or simply preventing the onset of corona at desired operating
voltages. In addition to the use of SF6 gas in recent times, everyone knows of the essential quality of air as an
insulating medium for overhead power transmission lines and in air blast circuit-breakers.
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Fig. 1.2 DC breakdownn strength of ty ypical solid, liiquid,
gas, and va
acuum insulattions in uniforrm fields.
Fiig. 1.3 Breakd
down strength h of insulating
g gases for
75 cm diam
meter uniformm field electro
odes having 122 mm gap.

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T
Table 1.5 Phy
ysical and chemical propertties of some off the commerccially importa
ant insulating gases.

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1.4.2 Petroleum Oil (Transformer Oil)

The electrical properties that are essential in determining the dielectric performance of a liquid dielectric are:
(a) Capacitance per unit volume or relative permittivity,
(b) Resistivity,
(c) Loss tangent (tan δ) or power factor which is an indication of the power loss under a.c. voltage
application, and
(d) Ability to withstand high electric stresses.

Permittivities of most of the petroleum oils vary from 2.0 to 2.6, while those of askarels vary between 4.5 and
5.0, and those of silicone oils from 2.0 to 73. In case of the non-polar liquids, the permittivity is independent of
frequency but in the case of polar liquids, such as water, it changes with frequency. For example, the permittivity
of water is 78 at 50 Hz and reduces to ~5.0 at 1 MHz.

Resistivities of insulating liquids used for high voltage applications should be more than 1016 ·m and most of
the liquids in their pure state exhibit this property.

Power Factor of a liquid dielectric under a.c. voltage will determine its performance under load conditions.
Power factor is a measure of the power loss and is an important parameter in cable and capacitor systems. However,
in the case of transformers, the dielectric loss in the oil is negligible when compared to copper and iron losses. Pure
and dry transformer oils will have a very low power factor varying between 10-4 at 20 ºC and 10-3 at 90 ºC at a
frequency of 50 Hz.

Dielectric Strength is the most important parameter in the choice of a given liquid dielectric for a given
application. The dielectric strength depends on the atomic and molecular properties of the liquid itself. However,
under practical conditions, the dielectric strength depends on the material of the electrodes, temperature, type of
applied voltage, gas content in the liquid, etc., which change the dielectric strength by changing the molecular

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properties of the liquid. Th
p he above factoors which conntrol the break
kdown streng
gth and lead to
o electrical brreakdown
o the liquid dielectrics
of d are discussed in subsequent seections.

Table 1.6 shows the eleectrical properrties of some liquid dielecttrics used in transformers,
t cables, capaccitors, and
i other special application
in ns. In practice, the choice of
o a liquid diellectric for a given
g applicatiion is also maade on the
b
basis hemical stability. Other facctors such as saving
of its ch s of spacce, cost, prev
vious usage, an nd susceptibillity to the
e
environmenta al influences are
a also consiidered. Transfformer oil is thet cheapest and a the most commonly ussed liquid
d
dielectric in power
p equipm ment. It is an
n almost colo orless liquid consisting
c a mixture
m ydrocarbons, including
of hy
p
paraffins, iso--paraffins, naaphthalenes, and
a aromaticss. When in service, the liiquid in a traansformer is subject s to
p
prolonged heaating at high temperatures of ~95 ºC, aand consequen ntly it underggoes a graduall ageing proccess. With
t
time the oil becomes darkeer due to the formation
f of acids
a and resiins, or sludge in the liquid.. Some of the acids are
c
corrosive to th
he solid insulating materials and metal parts
p in the traansformer. Deeposits of sludge on the traansformer
c
core, on the coils and insside the oil ductsd reduce circulation oof oil and thus its heat trransfer capab bility gets
c
considerably r
reduced. Commplete specificcations for th
he testing of trransformer oiils are given in
i IS 1866 (19 983), IEC
2 (1969), an
296 nd IEC 474 (1 1974).

T
Table 1.6 Electrical properrties of some commercial
c liq
quid dielectriccs.

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1
1.4.3 Solid Dielectric s

The majorrity of the insulating systeems used in practice

p are solids.
s They can
c be broadlly classified into
i three
g
groups: (1) Organic
O Materrials, (2) Inorrganic Materiaals, and (3) Synthetic
S Poly
ymers. Some of these matterials are
l
listed in Tablee 1.7.

T
Table 1.7 Cla
assification of solid insulatin
ng materials.

Organic materials
m are those
t which are
a produced from vegetab ble or animal matter and alll of them hav ve similar
c
characteristics
s. They are good
g insulato
ors and can be
b easily ado opted for praactical applicaations. Howeever, their
m
mechanical an
nd electrical properties
p alw
ways deteriorate rapidly when
w the tempperature exceeeds 100 ºC. Therefore,
T
t
they are geneerally used affter treating with
w a varnish h or impregnaation with ann oil. Examplees are paper and press
b
board used in cables, capaccitors, and trannsformers.

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Inorganic materials, unlike the organic materials, do not show any appreciable reduction (<10 %) in their
electrical and mechanical properties almost up to 250 ºC. Important inorganic materials used for electric
applications are glasses and ceramics. They are widely used for the manufacture of insulators, bushings, etc.,
because of their resistance to atmospheric pollutants and their excellent performance under varying conditions of
temperature and pressure.

Synthetic polymers are the polymeric materials which possess excellent insulating properties and can be easily
fabricated and applied to the apparatus. These are generally divided into two groups, the thermoplastic and the
thermosetting plastic types. Although they have low melting temperatures in the range 100–120 ºC, they are very
flexible and can be molded and extruded at temperatures below their melting points. They are widely used in
bushings, insulators etc. Their electrical use depends on their ability to prevent the absorption of moisture.

Some of the important dielectric properties of the above materials are discussed below.

(a) Paper
The kind of paper normally employed for insulation purposes is a special variety known as tissue paper or Kraft
paper. The thickness and density of paper vary depending on the application. Low-density paper (0.8 g/cm3) is
preferred in high frequency capacitors and cables, while medium density paper is used in power capacitors. High-
density papers are preferable in d.c. and energy storage capacitors and for the insulation of d.c. machines.

Paper is hygroscopic. Therefore, it has to be dried and impregnated with impregnants, such as mineral oil,
chlorinated diphenyl and vegetable oils. The relative dielectric constant of impregnated paper depends upon the
permittivity of cellulose of which the paper is made, and permittivity of the impregnant and the density of the paper.
Table 1.8 gives the dielectric constants for different densities of paper impregnated with different oils.

When very thin (thickness 8–20 µm) paper is used, it is very essential to see that the number of conducting
particles on the surface of the paper is minimum. The conventional method of detecting conducting particles is by
means of using a roller and plate, the conduction being indicated by means of headphones.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 1-23

T
Table 1.8 Dieelectric constant and density
y of paper imp
pregnated witth different oills.

( Fibers
(b)
Fibers when used for electrical
e purpposes will hav
ve the ability to combine strength and durability
d withh extreme
f
fineness and flexibility.
f Thhe fibers used
d are both natuural and man--made. They include cottonn, jute, flax, wool,
w silk
(
(natural fiberss), rayon, nylo
on, terylene, Teflon,
T and fibberglass.

The propeerties of fibroous materials depend on the t temperatu ure and humid dity. Figures 1.4 and 1.5 show the
v
variation of and tan δ off various fibro ous materials as a function n of the frequeency. It can be
b observed from
fr these
f
figures that decreases withw frequency y, while tan δ is higher att lower frequuencies. Mostt of the perfectly-dried
f
fibers have a dielectric con
nstant between n 3 and 8. Thhe presence off ionic impurities (e.g., saltt) considerablly reduces
t electrical resistance off the fiber. Arrtificial fiberss, such as tery
the ylene and fiberglass absorb b very little water
w and
h
hence have veery high resisttance. Table 1.9
1 gives the ddensity, and d tan δ of various fibers.

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Fig
g. 1.4 Variatio
on of dielectriic constant, with temperaature for papeer.
1 Trichlorodiipheny impreg
1. gnated paper.
2. Pentachlorod diphenyl imprregnated paperr.

Fig. 1.5
5 Variation of
o tan δ with thhe density of paper.
p
1 Trichlorodip
1. phenyl impreggnated paper..
2. Mineral oil impregnatted paper.
33. Dry paper.

EE509 Hig
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T
Table 1.9 Electrical properrties of fibrouss dielectrics.

( Mica and Its

(c) I Products
Mica is thhe generic nam me of a class of crystallinee mineral silicates of alum mina and potash. It can be classified
i
into four main n groups: (1) Muscovite, (2 2) Phlogopite, (3) Fibiolitee, and (4) Lipiidolite. The laast two groupss are hard
a brittle and
and d hence are un
nsuitable for electrical
e insu
ulation purposses. Mica can n be split into very thin flat laminate.
I has got a unique
It u a high dielecctric strength, low dielectrric losses,
combiination of eleectrical propeerties, such as
r
resistance to high temperaatures and good mechanicaal strength. These T have made
m it possib
ble for it to be
b used in
m
many electriccal apparatus. Very pure mica
m is used for
f high frequ uency applicattions. Spotted d mica is used for low
v
voltage insulaation, such ass for commuttator segmentt separators, armature win ndings, switch hgear and in electrical
h
heating and co ooling equipm
ments. Table 1.10
1 shows thhe electrical prroperties of mica.
m

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Mica is bu uilt into sheett form by bou unding togethher with a suitable resin orr varnish. Dep pending on th
he type of
a
application, m
mica can be mixed
m with th
he required tyype of resin to
t meet the operating
o tem
mperature requuirements.
M
Micanite is another
a form of mica whiich is extensiively used fo or insulation purposes. Miica splitting and mica
p
powder are used
u g materials, suuch as glass and phenolic resins. The use
as filters in insulating u of mica aas a filler
r
results in impproved dielectric strength, reduced dielectric loss an nd improved heat
h resistancce and hardneess of the
m
material.

T
Table 1.10 Ellectrical propeerties of muscovite and phlo
ogopite mica.

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(d) Glass
Glass is a thermoplastic inorganic material comprising complex systems of oxides (SiO2). The dielectric
constant of glass varies from 3.7 to 10 and the density varies from 2.2 to 6 g/cm3. At room temperature, the volume
resistivity of glass varies from 1012 to 1020 ohmcm. The dielectric loss of glass varies from 0.004 to 0.020,
depending on the frequency. The losses are highest at lowest frequencies. The dielectric strength of glass varies
from 3,000 to 5,000 kV/cm and decreases with increase in temperature, reaching half the value at 100 ºC. Glass is
used as a cover and for internal supports in electric bulbs, electronic valves, mercury arc switches, X-ray
equipment, capacitors, and as insulators in telephones.

(e) Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic materials produced by consolidating minerals into monolithic bodies by high
temperature heat treatment. Ceramics can be divided into two groups depending on the dielectric constant. Low
permittivity ceramics ( < 12) are used as insulators, while the high permittivity ceramics ( > 12) are used in
capacitors and transducers.

Tables 1.11 and 1.12 give the various dielectric properties of some ceramics commonly used for electrical
insulation purposes.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 1-28

T
Table 1.11 Prroperties of low
w permittivity
y ceramics.

T
Table 1.12 Prroperties of high permittivitty ceramics.

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( Rubbers
(f)
Rubber is a natural or synthetic
s vulccanizable high
h polymer hav ving high elaastic propertiees. Electrical properties
p
o rubber dep
of pend on the degree
d of commpounding an nd vulcanizinng. General immpurities, cheemical chang ges due to
a
ageing, moistture content and
a variation ns in temperatture and freqquency have substantial
s efffects on the electrical
p
properties of rubber.
r Somee important electrical propeerties and app
plications of different
d typess of rubber aree given in
T
Table 1.13.

T
Table 1.13 Prroperties and applications
a o rubbers.
of

EE509 Hig
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( Plastics
(g)
Plastics arre very widely y used as insuulating materiials because of
o their excelllent dielectric properties. Many
M new
d
developments s in electrical engineering and electroniics would nott have been possible
p withoout the develoopment of
p
plastics. Plasttics are madee by combiniing large num mbers of smaall molecules into a few big b ones. Wh hen small
m
molecules lin
nk to form th he bigger mo olecules of the
t plastics, m many differeent types of structures ressult Most
t
thermoplastic resins approx ximate to a sttructure in whhich several thhousand atom
ms are tied toggether in one direction.
T thermoseetting resins on
The o the other hand,
h form a three-dimensional networrk. In view of o the large nnumber of
p
plastics ot be possiblee to deal with all of them, and
availaable, it will no a only mateerials which are a commonly y used for
i
insulation purrposes are desscribed.

Polyethylene
P
Polyethyleene is a therrmoplastic maaterial whichh combines unusual u electrrical propertiies, high resiistance to
m
moisture and chemicals, eaasy processab bility, and loww cost. It has got
g high resistivity and goo od dielectric properties
p
a high frequeencies, and th
at herefore, is wiidely used forr power and ccoaxial cabless, telephone cables,
c multi-cconductor
c
control cabless, TV lead-in wires, etc. ByB varying thee methods of manufacture,, different typ pes of polyethhylene are
m
made with speecific propertties for differeent applicationns. They may have low, meedium, and hiigh densities oro may be
i
irradiated typees. The dielecctric propertiees of these aree summarized in Table 1.14
4.

T
Table 1.14 Ellectrical propeerties of polyeethylene.

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Fluorocarbon
F n Plastics
Polytetrafl
fluoroethylenee (PTFE), po olychlorotrifluuoroethylene (PCTFE), an nd polyvinyllidene (PVF2) plastics
c
come under this
t category y. PTFE is th he most therm mally stable and chemicaally resistant of all the th hree. It is
c
considered ass one of the best plasticss used for in nsulation because of its excellent
e elecctrical and m
mechanical
p
properties. It can be used without deco omposition upp to temperattures of 327 ºC. It is wid dely used in almost
a all
a
applications. P.C.T.F.E.
P haas higher dieleectric constan
nt and loss facctor than PTFE, but melts at a 190 ºC. PVVF2 can be
w
worked in thee temperature range -30 to o 150 ºC. It iss used as thin wall insulation, as jacketiing for compu uter wires
a special control
and c wires,, and for tubing and sleev ving for capaacitors, resisttors, terminal junctions, an
nd solder
s
sleeves. The electrical
e propperties of fluo
orocarbons aree tabulated in Table 1.15.

T
Table 1.15 Prroperties of flu
uorocarbon pllastics.

Nylon
N
Nylon is a thermoplasttic which posssesses high impact, tensiile, and flexu ural strengths over a wide range of
t
temperature (0 – 300 ºC). It also has hiigh dielectric strength and good surfacee and volume resistivities even e after
l
lengthy expossure to high humidity.
h nt to chemicall action, and can be easily
It iss also resistan y molded, extrruded and
m
machined. It is generally recommended
r d for high freq quency low lo oss applicatioons. In electriical engineering, nylon
m
moldings are used to make coil forms, fasteners,
fa connnectors, washeers, cable clam
mps, switch housings,
h etc. There are

EE509 Hig
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tthree differen
nt types of nylon
n commo only used. Th hey are nylon
n 6/6, nylon 6, and nylon
n 6/10. The dielectric
p
properties of these
t three typ
pes are given in Table 1.16
6.

T
Table 1.16 Diielectric propeerties of nylon
n.

Polyvinyl Chlloride
P
Polyvinyl chloride or PVC is used co ommercially ini various forrms. It is availlable as an un
nplasticized, toough, and
r
rigid sheet material and caan be easily shaped
s to any
y required forrm. It is chemmically resistaant to strong acids and
a
alkalis and iss insoluble inn water, alco ohol and orgaanic solventss like benzen ne. The upperr temperaturee limit of
o
operation is about
a 60 ºC. The
T dielectric strength, vollume resistivitty and surfacee resistivity are
a relatively high.
h The
d
dielectric constant and losss tangent are 3.0–3.3
3 and 0..015–0.02 respectively, at all
a frequenciees up to 1 MH Hz. PVC is
a
also y plasticized flexible mateerial, which is used extensively for wiire covering, insulated
availablee as a highly
s
sleeving, and cable sheathhing in preferrence to naturral rubber beccause of its resistance
r to the action off sunlight,
w
water and oxyygen.

EE509 Hig
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Polyesters
P
Polyesterss have excelleent dielectric properties annd superior su urface hardness, and are highly resistannt to most
c
chemicals. Thhey represent a whole fam mily of thermo osetting plasticcs produced by
b the conden nsation of diccaiboxylic
a
acids and dihy ydric alcohols, and are claassified as eith
her saturated or unsaturateed types. Unsaturated polyyesters are
u
used in glasss laminates an nd glass fibeer-reinforced moldings,
m booth of which are widely used
u for making small
e
electrical commponents to very large structures.
s Saaturated polyeesters are used in produccing fibers aand films.
P
Polyester fibeer is used to make
m paper, mat
m and cloth ffor electrical applications.
a T film is ussed for insulatting wires
The
a cables in motors, capaacitors, and trransformers. T
and The dielectricc properties of polyester co
ompounds aree given in
T
Table 1.17.

Mylor polyester film is being larg gely used in preference to paper insu ulation. At power
p frequeencies, its
d
dissipation faactor is very low, and it decreases
d as tthe temperatuure increases.. It has got a dielectric sttrength of
15
2
2,000 kV/cm,, and its volum me resistivity is better thann 10 cm at a 100 ºC. Its hhigh softening g point enablees it to be
u
used at tempeeratures abovee the operatinng limit of pap per insulation. It has got hiigh resistance to weathering and can
b buried und
be der the soil alsso. Therefore,, this can be uused for motorr and transforrmer insulation at power freequencies
a also for high
and h frequency y applicationss which are suubjected to varrying weatherr conditions.

T
Table 1.17 Diielectric propeerties of polyeesters.

EE509 Hig
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Polystyrenes

Polystyrenes are obtained when styrene is polymerized with itself or with other polymers or monomers
producing a variety of thermoplastic materials with varying properties in different colors. Electrical grade
polystyrenes have a dielectric strength comparable to that of mica, and have low dielectric losses which are
independent of the frequency. Their volume resistivity is about 1019 ohm-cm and the dielectric strength is
200–350 kV/cm. The dielectric constant at 20 ºC is 2.55, and the loss tangent is 0.0002 at all frequencies up to
10,000 MHz.

Polystyrene films are extensively used in the manufacture of low loss capacitors, which will have a very stable
capacitance and extremely high insulation resistance. Films and drawn threads of polystyrene are also used for high
frequency and cable insulations.

Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are thermosetting types of insulating materials. They possess excellent dielectric and mechanical
properties. They can be easily cast into desired shapes even at room temperature. They are very versatile, and their
basic properties can be modified either by the selection of a curing agent or by the use of modifiers or fillers. They
are highly elastic; samples tested under very high pressures, up to about 18,000 psi (12,000 atm) returned to their
original shape after the load was removed, and the sample showed no permanent damage. Resistance to weathering
and chemicals is also very good. The tensile strength of Araldite CT200 and hardener HV901 is in the range
5.5–8.5 kg/mm2, and the compressive strength is 11–13 kg/mm2. The dielectric constant varies between 2.5 and 3.8.
The dielectric loss factor is very small under power frequency conditions lying in the range 0.003–0.03. The
dielectric strength is 75 kV/mm, when the specimen thickness is 0.025 mm or 1 mil. The volume resistivity of the
material is of the order of 1013 ·cm.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 1-35

Epoxy resin can be formed into an insulator of any desired shape for almost any type of high voltage
application. Insulators, bushings, apparatus, etc. can be made out of epoxy resin. It can also be used for
encapsulation of electronic components, generator windings and transformers. It is used for bonding of very
diverse materials such as porcelain, wood, metals, plastics, etc. It is a very important adhesive used for sealing of
high vacuum joints. In any laboratory or industry in which electrical or electronic components or equipments are
handled or manufactured, numerous occasions arise wherein epoxy resins can be used with an advantage saving
time, labor, and money.

1.5 References

1. Naidu, M.S. and Kamaraju, V., High Voltage Engineering, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (2004).
2. Naidu, M.S. and Kamaraju, V., High Voltage Engineering, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (1996).
3. Kuffel, E. E. and Zaengl, W.S. and Kuffel, J., High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals, 2nd Edition, Butterworth Heinemann,
Oxford (2000).
4. John, A.J. and Platts, J. R., High Voltage Engineering and Testing, Peter Peregrinus, Lodon (1994).
5. Shugg, W. T., Handbook of Electrical and Electronic Insulating Materials, 2nd Edition, IEEE Press, New York (1995).
6. Guide for the Determination of Thermal Endurance Properties of Electrical Insulating Materials, I.E.C. Publication, 216-1
(1974).

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