RAJKIYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
BANDA
AIR BEARING SEMINAR REPORT
ON:-Air bearing
B. Tech (Mechanical Engg.)
2018-19
3rd year
Submitted To: Submitted By:
Mr. Deep Singh Thakur Mr.Pradeep Kumar
Roll No.1673440035
CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that I PRADEEP KUMAR the student of Mechanical engg. 3rd year ,
Rajkiya Engineering College, Banda has prepared and presented the report on the topic
Air bearing I have not copied the content from somewhere else proper reference has
been made whenever other’s work has been included in the report.
NAME:- PRADEEP KUMAR
Roll no:-1673440035
TABLE OF CONTENTS:-
1.INTRODUCTION
2.TYPES OF AIR BEARINGS
3.USE OF AIR BEARINGS IN ULTRA-PRECISION SPINDLE
4.CLASSIFICATION OF AEROSTATIC BEARING
5.MATERIAL SELECTION
6.EFFECT OF ORIFICE DIAMETER
7.DESIGN METHODOLOGY
8.ADVANTAGES OF USING AIR BEARING
9.APPLICATIONS
10.CONCEPTUAL APPLICATION
11.REFERENCES.
1. INTRODUCTION
Air bearing are bearings that use a thin film of pressurized air for providing exceedingly
low friction load bearing interface between surfaces.
The two surfaces do not touch. As they are contact free, they provide tradition bearing
problems of wear, friction, particulates and lubrication handling, and offer a distinct
advantage in precision positioning, such as lacking backlash and static friction, as well as in
high speed applications.
The fluid film of the bearing is air that flows through the bearing itself to the bearing
surface. The design of the air bearing is such that, although the air constantly escapes from
the bearing gap, the pressure between the faces of the bearing is enough to support the
working loads. Thus, there is a differentiation that has to be made between hydro-dynamical
bearings, which establish the air cushion through their movement, and hydrostatical bearings,
in which the pressure is being externally inserted.
Air bearings are being mainly used in precision machinery tools (measuring and
processing machines) and fast running machines (high speed spindle).
FIGURE 1.1: CROSS-SECTION THROUGH BEARING, FITTED WITH ORIFICE
HROUGH
FIGURE 1.2: SECTION THROUGH ORIFICE LINE
The basic principle of operation of air bearings has been established for more than fifty
years. An air bearing may comprise of a sleeve separated from a plain shaft by gap, typically
5–50 μm. High pressure air is fed through small orifices in the sleeve through the bearing gap
where it flows along the gap and out of the ends of the bearing. Orifice size is matched to the
bearing size so that under no load the pressure in the gap, just downstream of the orifice, is
approximately half the supply pressure. When a radial load is applied, the gap on one side of
the shaft closes down increasing its resistance to and causing pressure to rise. On the opposite
side of the shaft, the larger gap has reduced resistance to airflow and allows pressure to fall.
The pressure difference across the bearing gives it the capacity to support the applied load
without incurring any metal–metal contact even if there is no shaft rotation.
2. TYPES OF AIR BEARINGS
2.1. AEROSTATIC:
Externally pressurised: A separate external supply of air is fed under pressure between the
two surfaces being kept apart. It is a continuous flow system where pressurised gas from the
source flows through restrictors into the clearance between the bearing surfaces escaping to
the atmosphere at the outside edges of the bearing.
Types: Simple orifice fed, Pocketed orifice, Slot fed and Porous.
2.1.1. PRINCIPLE
Because aerostatic bearings have a pressurized air source they can maintain an air gap in
the absence of relative motion between the bearing surfaces. Air bearings offer a solution for
many high-tech applications where high-performance and high accuracy is required.
Aerostatic bearings require an external Pressurized air source due to which aerostatic
bearings are also known as passive air bearings. High stiffness can be achieved. The
aerostatic bearing is able to support higher load than the aerodynamic bearing, but it requires
continuous power supply for supplying pressurized air. Overall, aerostatic bearings perform
well in most aspects such as having long life, noise-free operations and are free from
contamination Since air has a very low viscosity, the bearing gaps need to be small, of the
order of 1- 10 μm. As the object floats on a thin layer of air, the friction is extremely small
and even zero when stationary.
FIGURE 2.1. AIR SUPPLY
Figure.2.1 shows that, how gas at a supply pressure, Ps is admitted into the clearance
through a restricting device, which reduces the supply pressure. The pressure drop is due to
the acceleration of the gas as it expands. The air will flow through the bearing and back to the
atmosphere where the pressure further reduces to atmospheric pressure, Pa. A smaller
clearance will reduce the pressure drop that gives a higher load capacity. It is desirable to
achieve an optimum condition at which a maximum stiffness occurs where the rate of change
of load when divided by the rate of change of clearance is a maximum.
2.2 AERODYNAMIC:
Self-generating: The supporting film is generated by the relative motion of the two
surfaces being kept apart. An aerodynamic bearing can be of several types. The design
characteristics differ greatly between journal and axial bearings and they can suffer problems
of instability.
Types: Simple cylinders, Tri-lobe, Grooved (axial / herringbone / spiral) and Stepped
2.2.1PRINCIPLE
Aerodynamic bearings depend on relative motion between the bearing surfaces and
usually some type of spiral grooves to draw the air between the bearing lands. This bearing
action is very similar to hydroplaning in our automobile on a puddle of water at high speed.
At a lower speed our tire would cut through the water to the road. In just this way,
aerodynamic bearings require relative motion between the surfaces, when there is no motion
or when the motion is not fast enough to generate the air film the bearing surfaces will come
into contact. Aerodynamic bearings are often referred to as foil bearings or self-acting
bearings. Examples of this type of bearing include the read-write head flying over a spinning
disk, crankshaft journals, camshaft journals, and thrust bearings for electrical generator
turbines.
1. USE OF AIR BEARINGS IN ULTRA-PRECISION SPINDLE
Aerostatic bearings have been adapted to develop spindles called ultra-precision aerostatic
spindles. Since most of the ultra-precision machines require precision class spindle with
higher running accuracy, stiffness and good thermal stability. Aerostatic bearings are in
greater demand. Aerostatic bearing gives high rotational accuracy, thermal stability, stiffness
and high operating speeds, compared to other types of bearings. Ultra- precision machines
require spindles with nanometre accuracy in rotation, moderate axial and radial stiffness, and
moderate load carrying capacity.
FIGURE 3.1. AIR BEARING SPINDLE
Later various concepts like active air bearings and passive air bearings and others were
developed. Accompanying this, further high precision is demanded for spindles and spindle
supporting bearings that are elements of machine tools. In the present work an attempt has
been made to develop an aerostatic spindle for ultra-precision machine tool which overcomes
the drawbacks present in anti-friction bearing spindle which were used in precision machine
tools. As problems like wear, thermal errors, lubrication problems, bearing failure etc, were
encountered in anti-friction bearings there was a serious research in the field of precision
engineering. Different types of aerostatic bearings are analysed and the best one is selected
for design and further development. Detailed design of axial grooved journal bearings is done
and groove parameters are studied and optimized. Then the concept of using aerostatic
bearings was developed and it received a huge response from all organizations and research
centres.
Ultra-precision machines require spindles with nanometre accuracy in rotation, moderate
axial, radial stiffness, and moderate load carrying capacity. Aerostatic bearings have been
adapted to develop this type of spindles called ultra-precision aerostatic spindles. Since most
of the ultra-precision machines require precision class spindle with higher running accuracy,
stiffness and good thermal stability, aerostatic bearings are in greater demand. Aerostatic
bearing gives high rotational accuracy, thermal stability, stiffness and high operating speeds,
compared to other types of bearings.
1.1. THE BASIC PRINCIPLE
Air spindles employ two or more cylindrical journal bearings to support radial loads and
an opposed pair of flat, annular thrust bearings to support axial loads. A practical design of
air spindle also has an integral drive motor and means of work holding. In a typical spindle
compressed air enters through a port on the rear face and is fed through drillings to reservoirs
surrounding each journal bearing and reservoirs positioned either side of the thrust bearings.
From the reservoirs, air is fed through rows of orifices into the bearing gaps. Exhaust air from
the ends of the journal bearings, inner and outer edges of the thrust bearings is vented to
atmosphere .Cooling water enters the spindle through a port on the rear face. From here it is
typically ducted along the spindle where it flows through a reservoir surrounding the front
bearing. The cooling water is then fed back along the spindle where it passes through a
reservoir surrounding the rear journal bearing before exiting through a port on the spindle’s
rear face.
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF AEROSTATIC BEARING
There are five basic types of aerostatic bearing geometries as follows: single pad, opposed
pad journal, rotary thrust and conical journal or thrust bearings. It can be classified again as
follow:
1. Journals basically cylindrical surfaces.
2. Thrust bearings circular or annular flat surfaces which are designed for rotation
3. Slider
bearings flat surfaces of any boundary shape which are designed for obtaining a sliding
motion.
4. Spherical bearings
1.3. MATERIAL SELECTION
In aerostatic spindle it is important to select carefully the materials used for the shaft,
bearing and restrictors. The following considerations should always be considered for the
material selection.
1. Corrosion resistance
2. Machinability
3. Material stability
4 .Thermal conductivity
5. Thermal expansion
For the bearing bush material, lead bronze is best suited. Lead bronze is corrosion resistant,
can be easily machined and easily soldered or brazed so that the pressure tight fixing of the
numerous feed jets is a relatively simple procedure. They are readily suited for use in
combination with austenitic stainless steel body material. The coefficients of thermal
expansion are well matched theory avoiding thermal stress problems and the
electrochemical potentials are identical so that no electro-chemical corrosion can
occur. In the process of analytical calculations three assumptions are made:
1. The film thickness h0 is uniform over the bearing element
2. A one dimensional axial flow is assumed
3. The pressure drops in axial direction.
1.4. MATERIALS OF THE AIR BEARING SPINDLE
The blank for a machine tools spindle may be:
1. Rolled stock in the case of spindles having diameter < 150 mm.
2. Casting in the case of spindles having diameter > 150 mm
It should be kept in mind that if the spindle blank is cut from rolled stock, the cutting must
be done by cutting tools to avoid additional distortion of the material microstructure. In
machine tools spindle design the critical design parameter is not strength but stiffness. If we
compare the mechanical properties of various steels, then their modulus of elasticity should
be more or less equal, although the strength of the alloyed steels can be considerably greater
than of mild steel.
Since stiffness is primarily determined by the modulus of elasticity of the material, it may
be concluded that no particular benefit accrues from using costly alloyed steels are required
to make spindles.
1.5. LOAD CAPACITY
The load capacity can be defined as the total load supported by the bearing surfaces. It
can be obtained by integrating the pressure over the whole of the bearing surface.
1.6. STIFFNESS
Stiffness can be defined as the rate of change of load capacity with respect to change in air
gap. Higher stiffness means less compliance. This means there will be small change in air gap
corresponding to large variation in load.
1.7. EFFECT OF ORIFICE DIAMETER
Load and stiffness plots are taken for different size of orifice diameter. The orifice diameter is
varied from
0.1 to 1.0 mm. The other parameters, such as bearing radius, pocket radius, and supply
pressure, were kept constant. Figures. 3.2 and 3.3 show the plot of load capacity and
stiffness with respect to the air gap for different values of the orifice diameter
FIGURE.3.2 PLOT OF LOAD CAPACITY WITH AIR GAP
FIGURE 3.3 PLOT OF STIFFNESS WITH AIR GAP
The maximum load capacity is same for all values of orifice diameter. However, as the
orifice diameter decreases, the peak value of stiffness increases. At the same time, the
corresponding value of air gap is also decreasing.
1.8. EFFECT OF SUPPLY PRESSURE
All bearing parameters were kept constant except the supply pressure. The orifice diameter
was kept at 1.0 mm. The supply pressure was varied from 6 to 10 bars. Figure. 3.4 and 3.5
show the plot of load capacity and stiffness versus air-gap for different values of the supply
pressure, respectively
FIGURE.3.4. LOAD VERSUS AIR GAP PLOT FOR DIFFERENT P0.
FIGURE 3.5 STIFFNESS VERSUS AIR GAP PLOT FOR DIFFERENT P0
As the supply pressure increases, the maximum load capacity increases. The peak value
of stiffness also increases with the supply pressure.
1.9. EFFECT OF BEARING DIAMETER
The bearing diameter was varied from 30 to 80mm. The other parameters were kept
constant. Figures. 3.6 and 3.7 show the plot for load and stiffness for different values of the
bearing diameter, respectively.
FIGURE 3.6. LOAD PLOT FOR DIFFERENT BEARING DIAMETER
FIGURE 3.7 STIFFNESS PLOT FOR DIFFERENT BEARING DIAMETER
From the load plot, it was observed that the load capacity increases with the bearing diameter.
The peak value of stiffness also increases with the bearing diameter.
From the analysis, it has been observed that the maximum load capacity is mainly decided
by the bearing dimensions and supply pressure conditions. It does not depend on the orifice
diameter. However, orifice diameter has greater impact on the stiffness. As the orifice
diameter decreases, the stiffness increases. Stiffness
can be also increased by increasing the supply pressure and the bearing diameter. This shows
that smaller orifice diameter can result into higher stiffness at smaller air-gap.
1.10. DESIGN METHODOLOGY
The basic understanding of air bearing performance was utilised to develop a simple
methodology to help the design and selection process. Design is an iterative process, but the
number of iterations can be minimised by adopting a careful strategy. Based on the load and
stiffness requirements, the bearing dimensions, orifice size, and supply pressure can be
suitably selected using this approach. Optimum air-gap and correspondingly the required pre-
loading can be also obtained.
FIGURE 3.8 STRATEGY FOR AIR BEARING DESIGN
Based on the load and stiffness requirements, the bearing dimensions, orifice size, and supply
pressure can be suitably selected using this approach. Optimum air-gap and correspondingly
the required pre-loading can be also obtained.
2. AIR BEARINGS BASED ON CERAMIC COMPOSITES
Air bearings made of porous materials allow an equal air distribution on the bearing
surface. In comparison with conventional orifice bearings, air bearings have a higher load
capacity and stiffness. Their dynamic behaviour is improved due to many micro pores, which
make the bearings less sensitive to internal and external disturbances.
Pressure injected air bearings can be divided into two classes. Traditional air bearings are
designed with one or more orifices and often combined with grooves to improve the bearing
properties. Today, innovative air bearings used porous materials, so that a large number of
micro cannels control the airflow across the entire bearing surface.
In contrast of orifice bearings, porous air bearings are characterised by an excellent air
pressure distribution across the surface and a high tolerance to bearing surface damage.
Therefore, porous bearings have an improved dynamic and static behaviour. Temperature
gradients on machines with guidance based on air bearings can lead to displacements of the
bearing surfaces and the reduction of the machine accuracy due to change of air gap or
preload force. Therefore, apart from the improvement of dynamic and static properties of air
bearings, it is also essential to optimise the thermal behaviour. The aim is to develop new
materials that combine the excellent properties of traditionally porous bearing materials and
the thermal properties of ceramics.
The development of porous ceramic composite materials with their excellent thermal and
mechanical properties allow the design of air bearings for the optimisation of high precision
and high speed machines. Motor spindles for precision tool machines required a constant air
gap for steady properties even at highest rotation speeds. Energy dissipation in drives and the
air friction in bearings at high relative velocities lead to thermal displacements. The result is a
negative influence of static and dynamic spindle behaviour. Ceramic bearings reduce the
thermal deformations to a minimum. Therefore, a motor spindle with porous ceramic air
bearings was developed at IWF for the investigation and optimisation of spindle behaviour.
Comparison of orifice and porous bearings in orifice bearings the air is supplied to the
bearing surface through a small number of precisely sized holes. Since bearings with single
orifice have a high pressure gradient between the orifice centre and the bearing boundary, a
proper number of orifices are strategically placed on the bearing surface (see Figure 4.1).
FIGURE.4.1 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON THE BEARING SURFACE FOR
ORIFICES (A, B) AND POROUS BEARINGS (C)
Porous air bearings enable the supply of air equally across the whole surface of bearing, so
that the air flow can be restricted and damped at the same time. This can be achieved by
diffusing the air through a porous bearing material, so that a uniform pressure in the air gap is
generated (also see Figure 4.1). Compared with orifice bearings, porous bearings have the
highest load capacity and stiffness including high vibration stability. One of the first porous
air bearing materials was carbon graphite [2, 3]. Subsequently, bearings produced design.
Designing with ceramics is more difficult compared with steel, because steel is much more
tolerant to local stress peaks and material flaws. These disadvantages of monolithic ceramic
materials could be overcome by the development of ceramic composites. Such materials are
synthesised from the assembly of two or more components in order to obtain specific material
properties.
One of these ceramic composites is CVI-SiC/SiC, which is composed of a silicon carbide
(SiC) fibre reinforcement imbedded in a SiC matrix during the chemical vapour infiltration
(CVI). The three dimensional SiC fibre architecture and the SiC matrix leads to a structure
with an open porosity of 10 % to 15%, which makes it fluid-permeable (see Fig. 12). The
porosity can be modified by variation of structure geometry and the controlled filling of this
structure with SiC. The geometrical form of the pores is dependent on fibre direction, and lies
between 100 µm and 300 µm for the test pieces. Semi-finished products like tubes and plate
of different thicknesses were manufactured in a pilot plant.
FIGURE.4.2 FIBRE STRUCTURE OF POROUS COMPOSITE SIC/SIC
Contrary to conventional monolith ceramics, the reinforcement with continuous fibres
from SiC guarantees an increased tensile strength, fracture toughness and the elastic modulus
of ceramic substantially. The SiC fibres catch the break in case of sub-critical crack growth,
so that the main cause of brittle failure would be eliminated. In contrast to monolith ceramics,
pre-stress is not necessary for components made of CVI-SiC/SiC.
3. ADVANTAGES OF USING AIR BEARING
1) GREATER PRECISION
Air bearings provide extreme radial and axial rotational precision. Since there is no
mechanical contact, wear is minimal, ensuring accuracy remains constant over time.
2) INCREASED TOOL LIFE
The use of air bearings means tool life can be greatly extended.
3) IMPROVED SURFACE FINISH
The accurate, repeatable motion given by air bearing spindles gives a superior surface finish
4) LONG BEARING LIFE
With no mechanical contact and a clean air supply, free from oil and water, bearing life is
dramatically increased.
5) LOW THERMAL GROWTH
Low friction, constant air flow and efficient power transmission result in minimal thermal growth.
6) LARGE LOAD CAPACITY
Air bearings can support heavy loads, allowing them to be applied to many industrial machine tool
applications
7) REDUCED VIBRATION
Only minimal levels of vibration and audible noise are produced when running an air bearing spindle.
8) LACK OF MAINTENANCE
Only the very minimum of maintenance is required. A regular check of air supply and
coolant systems is all that is necessary to ensure complete reliability
9) CLEANLINESS
Air is the only lubrication used; therefore air bearing technology is ideal where there must
be no contamination of the work piece or working environment.
10) HIGH SPEED
Low shear forces within the air bearing allow extremely high rotational speeds with minimal
loss of power and very low heat generation. Speeds can exceed 300,000 rpm
4. BEARING SYSTEMS COMPARISION TABLE
FIGURE 6.1 BEARING COMPARISON TABLE
5. APPLICATIONS
5.1. AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY
5.1.1. AIR-GUIDED HIGH-FREQUENCY KNIFE DRIVE
FIGURE 7.1. AIR BEARING CUTTING ENGINE
Even for movements which cause damage due to disruptive wear with roller bearings,
lifetimes of the drive systems are unlimited.
5.1.2. AIR GUIDED TURBOCHARGER
In order to provide confidence and for the first investigations, an initial conversion from a
conventional oil- guided turbo charger into air-guided was done. For a real future version, the
use of results obtained from high- temperature solutions, mass products and high-frequency
spindles will be very helpful.
7.2. MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Fat- and oil-free drives for respirators, stick-slip-free movements of scanners or a high
rotary speed of large rotors have all been achieved with air bearings.
7.2.1. AIR-GUIDED COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
High rotary speed (> 5.5 Hz / 330 rpm), low operation costs, no noise, large inner rotor
diameter (> 1m), small weight of rotor and frame, tilt possibility of the rotor as well as a
high reliability. Besides a direct drive, a belt drive is also possible.
7.3. PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Primarily, stick-slip-free movements and/or smallest forces are required. The air bearing
technology is predestined for fat/oil-free high-dynamic movements with short strokes.
7.3.1. AIR BEARING FOR THE ADJUSTMENT OF COMPONENTS
With air-guided units, optical components can be arranged to have the same diameter on a
rotary table. The air bearing with vacuum preload and a constant bearing gap height floats
contact-less on top of the rotary table.
7.3.2. ADJUSTMENT SLIDER FOR OPTICS PRODUCTION
The linear slider, which is air-guided and statically determined, guarantees a high-
precision positioning of the optical component before grinding. The self-aligning process is
done without friction or force. When clamped the component retains its position for further
manufacturing in the sub-micrometre-range.
7.4. SPACE TECHNOLOGY
7.4.1. AIR-MAGNETIC SLIP SYSTEM
When transporting solar panels for satellites in a launching rocket, these must be folded.
After reaching orbit, they unfold via a spring mechanism, weightlessly and without friction.
This process requires prior testing on Earth due to security reasons. During the testing design,
the solar panels are hung on magnetic preloaded air- bearings that compensate for gravity. In
doing so, the unfolding movement process is carried out with a minimum friction impact
which means that the solar panels are tested at close to reality. Moreover, the design offers
absolutely maintenance-free handling with equal sequential movements.
The air-bearing components (diameter 34 mm) with integrated magnets are so small such
that they are able to glide contact-free along conventional rolled sheet plates smoothly and
with a bearing gap height of about 25 µm. The holding force of an air bearing for one solar
panel averages 600 N. This force is achieved by an equal distribution of the load on 16 single
air bearing elements. The unfolding process of the solar panels has been developed for an
area of 21 m x 2.5 m.
The permanent magnetic preloaded air-bearing guidance system may be used for many
types of hanging transportation movements as well as for many other applications, such as for
instance for the stick-slip-free positioning of components during assembly.
6. CONCEPTUAL APPLICATION
6.1. HYPERLOOP TRANSPORTATION
The Hyperloop is a conceptual high-speed transportation system, incorporating reduced-
pressure tubes in which pressurized capsules ride on an air cushion driven by linear
induction motors and air compressors.
The Hyperloop concept is proposed to operate by sending specially designed "capsules" or "pods"
through a continuous steel tube maintained at a partial vacuum. Each capsule floats on a 0.5-to-1.3-
millimetre (0.02 to
0.05 in) layer of air provided under pressure to air-caster "skis", similar to how pucks are
suspended in an air hockey table.
FIGURE 8.1 HYPERLOOP CAPSULE: AIR COMPRESSOR ON THE FRONT,
PASSENGER COMPARTMENT IN THE MIDDLE, BATTERY COMPARTMENT AT
THE BACK AND AIR CASTER SKIS AT THE BOTTOM
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