Bijay Sherchan
Niraj shrestha
Lx adhikari
Nepal Students Union
Kathmandu Engineering college
Kalimati,Kathmandu
9813122278
6.087 Lecture 1 January 11, 2010
Introduction to C
Writing C Programs
Our First C Program
What is C?
Dennis Ritchie AT&T
Bell Laboratories 1972
16-bit DEC PDP11 computer (right)
Widely used today
extends
to
newer
system architectures
efficiency/performance
low-level access
Features of C
C features:
Few keywords
Structures, unions compound data types
Pointers memory, arrays
External standard library I/O, other facilities
Compiles to native code
Macro preprocessor
Versions of C
Evolved over the years:
1972 C invented
1978 The C Programming Language published;
first specification of language
1989 C89 standard (known as ANSI C or Standard C)
1990 ANSI C adopted by ISO, known as C90
1999 C99 standard
mostly backward-compatible
not completely implemented in many compilers
2007 work on new C standard C1X announced
In this course: ANSI/ISO C (C89/C90)
What is C used for?
Systems programming:
OSes, like Linux
microcontrollers: automobiles and airplanes
embedded processors: phones, portable electronics, etc.
DSP processors: digital audio and TV systems
...
C vs. related languages
More recent derivatives: C++, Objective C, C#
Influenced: Java, Perl, Python (quite different)
C lacks:
exceptions
range-checking
garbage collection
object-oriented programming
polymorphism
...
Low-level language faster code (usually)
Warning: low-level language!
Inherently unsafe:
No range checking
Limited type safety at compile time
No type checking at runtime
Handle with care.
Always run in a debugger like gdb (more later. . . )
Never run as root
1
Never test code on the Athena servers
1
Athena is MIT's UNIX-based computing environment. OCW does not provide access to it.
6.087 Lecture 1 January 11, 2010
Introduction to C
Writing C Programs
Our First C Program
Editing C code
.c extension
Editable directly
More later. . .
Compiling a program
gcc (included with most Linux distributions): compiler
.o extension
omitted for common programs like gcc
More about gcc
Run gcc:
1
athena% gcc -Wall infilename.c -o
outfilename.o
-Wall enables most compiler warnings
More complicated forms exist
multiple source files
auxiliary directories
optimization, linking
Embed debugging info and disable optimization:
athena% gcc -g -O0 -Wall infilename.c -o
outfilename.o
Debugging
Figure: gdb: command-line debugger
10
Using gdb
Some useful commands:
break linenumber create breakpoint at specified line
break file:linenumber create breakpoint at line in file
run run program
c continue execution
next execute next line
step execute next line or step into function
quit quit gdb
print expression print current value of the specified
expression
help command in-program help
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Memory debugging
Figure: valgrind: diagnose memory-related problems
12
The IDE all-in-one solution
Popular IDEs: Eclipse (CDT), Microsoft Visual
C++ (Express Edition), KDevelop, Xcode, . . .
Integrated editor with compiler, debugger
Very convenient for larger programs
Courtesy of The Eclipse Foundation. Used with permission.
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Using Eclipse
Need Eclipse CDT for C programs
(see http://www.eclipse.org/cdt/)
Use New > C Project
choose Hello World ANSI C Project for simple project
Linux GCC toolchain sets up gcc and gdb (must be
installed separately)
Recommended for final project
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6.087 Lecture 1 January 11, 2010
Introduction to C
Writing C Programs
Our First C Program
15
Hello, 6.087 students
In style of Hello, world!
.c file structure
Syntax: comments, macros, basic declarations
The main() function and function structure
Expressions, order-of-operations
Basic console I/O (puts(), etc.)
15
Structure of a .c file
/* Begin with comments about file contents */
Insert #include statements and preprocessor definitions
Function prototypes and variable declarations
Define main() function
{
Function body
}
Define other function
{
Function body
}
.
.
.
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Comments
Comments: / this is a simple comment /
Can span multiple lines
/ This comment
spans
m ultiple
lines
Completely ignored by compiler
Can appear almost anywhere
/ h e l l o . c our
Created by Daniel
f i r s t C program
Weller ,
01/11/2010
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The #include macro
Header files: constants, functions, other declarations
#include <stdio.h> read the contents of the header file
stdio.h
stdio.h: standard I/O functions for console, files
/ h e l l o . c our
f i r s t C program
Created by Daniel Weller , 01/11/2010 /
#include < s t d i o . h> / basic I /O f a c i l i t i e s /
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More about header files
stdio.h part of the C Standard Library
other important header files: ctype.h, math.h,
stdlib.h, string.h, time.h
For the ugly details: visit http:
//www.unix.org/single_unix_specification/
(registration required)
Included files must be on include path
-Idirectory with gcc: specify additional include
directories
standard include directories assumed by default
#include "stdio.h" searches ./ for stdio.h first
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Declaring variables
Must declare variables before use
Variable declaration:
int n;
float phi ;
int - integer data type
float - floating-point data type
Many other types (more next lecture. . . )
20
Initializing variables
Uninitialized, variable assumes a default value
Variables initialized via assignment operator:
n = 3;
Can also initialize at declaration:
float phi = 1.6180339887;
Can declare/initialize multiple variables at once:
int a, b, c = 0, d = 4;
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Arithmetic expressions
Suppose x and y are variables
x+y, x-y, x*y, x/y, x%y: binary arithmetic
A simple statement:
y = x+3x/(y4);
Numeric literals like 3 or 4 valid in expressions
Semicolon ends statement (not newline)
x += y, x -= y, x *= y, x /= y, x %= y: arithmetic and assignment
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Order of operations
Order of operations:
Operator
+,- (sign)
+,-
Evaluation direction
right-to-left
left-to-right
left-to-right
=,+=,-=,*=,/=,%=
right-to-left
*,/,%
Use parentheses to override order of evaluation
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Order of operations
Assume x = 2.0 and y = 6.0. Evaluate the statement
float z = x+3x/(y4);
1. Evaluate expression in parentheses
float z = x+3x/(y4); float z = x+3x/2.0;
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Order of operations
Assume x = 2.0 and y = 6.0. Evaluate the statement
float z = x+3x/(y4);
1. Evaluate expression in parentheses
float z = x+3x/(y4); float z = x+3x/2.0;
2. Evaluate multiplies and divides, from left-to-right
float z = x+3x/2.0; float z = x+6.0/2.0; float z = x+3.0;
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Order of operations
Assume x = 2.0 and y = 6.0. Evaluate the statement
float z = x+3x/(y4);
1. Evaluate expression in parentheses
float z = x+3x/(y4); float z = x+3x/2.0;
2. Evaluate multiplies and divides, from left-to-right
float z = x+3x/2.0; float z = x+6.0/2.0; float z = x+3.0;
3. Evaluate addition
float z = x+3.0; float z = 5.0;
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Order of operations
Assume x = 2.0 and y = 6.0. Evaluate the statement
float z = x+3x/(y4);
1. Evaluate expression in parentheses
float z = x+3x/(y4); float z = x+3x/2.0;
2. Evaluate multiplies and divides, from left-to-right
float z = x+3x/2.0; float z = x+6.0/2.0; float z = x+3.0;
3. Evaluate addition
float z = x+3.0; float z = 5.0;
4. Perform initialization with assignment
Now, z = 5.0.
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Order of operations
Assume x = 2.0 and y = 6.0. Evaluate the statement
float z = x+3x/(y4);
1. Evaluate expression in parentheses
float z = x+3x/(y4); float z = x+3x/2.0;
2. Evaluate multiplies and divides, from left-to-right
float z = x+3x/2.0; float z = x+6.0/2.0; float z = x+3.0;
3. Evaluate addition
float z = x+3.0; float z = 5.0;
4. Perform initialization with assignment
Now, z = 5.0.
How do I insert parentheses to get z = 4.0?
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Order of operations
Assume x = 2.0 and y = 6.0. Evaluate the statement
float z = x+3x/(y4);
1. Evaluate expression in parentheses
float z = x+3x/(y4); float z = x+3x/2.0;
2. Evaluate multiplies and divides, from left-to-right
float z = x+3x/2.0; float z = x+6.0/2.0; float z = x+3.0;
3. Evaluate addition
float z = x+3.0; float z = 5.0;
4. Perform initialization with assignment
Now, z = 5.0.
How do I insert parentheses to get z = 4.0?
float z = (x+3x)/(y4);
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Function prototypes
Functions also must be declared before use
Declaration called function prototype
Function prototypes:
or
int factorial ( int n);
Prototypes for many common functions in header files
for C Standard Library
int factorial ( int );
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Function prototypes
General form:
return_type function_name(arg1,arg2,...);
Arguments: local variables, values passed from caller
Return value: single value returned to caller when
function exits
void signifies no return value/arguments
int rand(void);
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The main() function
main(): entry point for C program
Simplest
version: no inputs, outputs 0
successful, and nonzero to signal some error
when
int main(void);
Two-argument form of main(): access command-line
arguments
int main(int argc, char argv);
More on the char
**argv notation later this week. . .
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Function definitions
Function declaration
{
declare variables;
program statements;
}
Must match prototype (if there is one)
variable names dont have to match
no semicolon at end
Curly braces define a block region of code
Variables declared in a block exist only in that block
Variable declarations before any other statements
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Our main() function
/ The main ( ) f u n c t i o n /
i n t main ( void ) / e n t r y p o i n t /
{
/ w r i t e message to console
/
puts ( "hello, 6.087 students" ) ;
return 0; /
e x i t (0 => success ) /
puts(): output text to console window (stdout) and end
the line
String literal: written surrounded by double quotes
return 0;
exits the function, returning value 0 to caller
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Alternative main() function
Alternatively, store the string in a variable first:
i n t main ( void ) / e n t r y p o i n t / {
const char msg [ ]
= "hello, 6.087 students" ;
/ w r i t e message to console / puts
(msg ) ;
const keyword: qualifies variable as constant
char: data type representing a single character; written in
quotes: a, 3, n
const char msg[]: a constant array of characters
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More about strings
Strings stored as character array
Null-terminated (last character in array is \0 null)
Not written explicitly in string literals
Special characters specified using \ (escape character):
\\ backslash, \ apostrophe, \ quotation mark
\b, \t, \r, \n backspace, tab, carriage return, linefeed
\ooo, \xhh octal and hexadecimal ASCII character
codes, e.g. \x41 A, \060 0
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Console I/O
stdout, stdin: console output and input streams
puts(string): print string to stdout
putchar(char): print character to stdout
char = getchar(): return character from stdin
string = gets(string): read line from stdin into string
Many others - later this week
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Preprocessor macros
Preprocessor macros begin with # character
#include <stdio.h>
#define msg "hello, 6.087 students"
defines msg as hello, 6.087 students throughout source
file
many constants specified this way
33
Defining expression macros
#define can take arguments and be treated like a function
#define add3(x,y,z) ((x)+(y)+(z))
parentheses ensure order of operations
compiler performs inline replacement; not suitable for
recursion
34
Conditional preprocessor macros
#if, #ifdef, #ifndef, #else, #elif , #endif
conditional preprocessor macros, can control which
lines are compiled
evaluated before code itself is compiled, so conditions
must be preprocessor defines or literals
the gcc option -Dname=value sets a preprocessor define
that can be used
Used in header files to ensure declarations happen
only once
35
Conditional preprocessor macros
#pragma
preprocessor directive
#error, #warning
trigger a custom compiler error/warning
#undef msg
remove the definition of msg at compile time
36
Compiling our code
After we save our code, we run gcc:
1
athena% gcc -g -O0 -Wall hello.c -o hello.o
Assuming that we have made no errors, our compiling
is complete.
37
Running our code
Or, in gdb,
athena%1 gdb hello.o
.
.
Reading symbols from hello.o...done. (gdb) run
Starting program: hello.o hello,
6.087 students
Program exited normally. (gdb)
quit
athena%
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Summary
Topics covered:
How to edit, compile, and debug C programs
C programming fundamentals:
comments
preprocessor macros, including #include
the main() function
declaring and initializing variables, scope
using puts() calling a function and passing an argument
returning from a function
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