Introduction to Cryogenic Engineering
Introduction to Cryogenic Engineering
Introduction
to Modern
MONDAY From History to Modern Refrigeration CyclesFrom
(G.History
Perini)
Refrigeration Cycles
Refrigeration Cycle Examples
TUESDAY Standard Components, Cryogenic Design (G. Perini)
WEDNESDAY Heat Transfer and Insulation (G. Vandoni)
THURSDAY Safety, Information Resources (G. Perini)
FRIDAY Applications of Cryogenic Engineering (T. Niinikoski)
Day 1
What is cryogenics?
History
Time of I. Newton
F. Bacon (1561 - 1621)
I. Newton
1642 - 1727
Novum organum (1620)
The third of the seven modes [] relates to [] heat and
cold. And herein man's power is clearly lame on one side. For
we have the heat of fire which is infinitely more potent and
intense than the heat of the sun as it reaches us, or the warmth
of animals.
But we have no cold save such as is to be got in wintertime, or in caverns, or
by application of snow and ice, []
And so too all natural condensations caused by cold should be investigated, in
order that, their causes being known, they may be imitated by art.
Time of I. Newton
Known refrigeration methods
refrigeration by a colder object
e.g. ice or snow
refrigeration by evaporation
refrigeration by dissolving saltpeter in
water
(saltpeter = sodium nitrate NaNO3 or
potassium nitrate KNO3 )
I. Newton
1642 - 1727
Time of I. Newton
R. Boyle (1627 - 1691); E. Mariotte (1620 - 1684)
p V = constant
I. Newton
1642 - 1727
Time of I. Newton
G. Amontons (1663 - 1705)
I. Newton
1642 - 1727
+1/3
abs. zero
ice
FREEZING
TEMP.
boil.
BOILING
TEMP.
Further development of thermodynamics
J. Black (1728 - 1799)
latent heat
A. Lavoisier (1743 - 1794)
caloric theory
S. Carnot (1824)
work
R. Clausius (1865)
entropy
W. Gibbs (1867); R. Mollier (1923)
enthalpy
Incentives for refrigeration and cryogenics
Early 19th century
large scale refrigeration
only by natural ice
increasing demand for artificial
refrigeration by
the butchers,
the brewers and later on
the industrialists
ice storage cave in Bliesdahlheim
ice harvesting
refrigerated railroad car
Incentives for refrigeration and cryogenics
Examples of first commercial refrigeration applications
S.S. Strathleven, equipped with Bell&Coleman air-cycle
refrigerator. First meat cargo transported from Australia
to London 6.12.1879 - 2.2.1880.
By courtesy of "La Trobe Picture Collection", State Library of Victoria
Standard ammonia cycle
ice machine from Yorks
1892 catalogue.
Braking the cryo-barrier I
The successful liquefaction of Oxygen
was announced at the meeting of the
Acadmie de Sciences in Paris on
December 24th, 1877 independently
by the physicist Louis Paul Cailletet
from Paris and the professor
Raoul Pictet from Geneva.
Cailletets apparatus
compression to 200 bar in a glass tube
with a hand-operated jack, using water
and mercury for pressure transmission
pre-cooling of the glass tube with liquid
ethylene to -103C
expansion to atmosphere via a valve
L.P. Cailletet
1832 - 1913
Braking the cryo-barrier II
R. Pictet
1832 - 1913
Pictets apparatus
production of oxygen under
pressure in a retort
two pre-cooling refrigeration
cycles:
first stage SO2 (-10C)
second stage CO2 (-78C)
oxygen flow is pre-cooled by the
means of heat exchangers and
expands to atmosphere via a
hand valve
Milestones in the history of cryogenic
technology
1892
1895
1898
1902
1908
1908
1910
1911
Dewar - use of silvering and vacuum in double walled glass vessel
Linde and Hampson build air liquefiers with recuperative heat exchangers
Dewar - liquefies hydrogen
Claude - use of piston expander
Kamerlingh Onnes - liquefies helium
Becquerel - freezes seeds and single cells
use of LOx in the production of steel
discovery of superconductivity
Thermodynamics
The magic of throttling - physicists explanation
The magic of throttling - physicists explanation
repulsion
dominates
(Coulomb)
ideal gas
attraction
dominates
(gravity)
Gay-Lussac
Joule-Thompson
internal
energy U
internal energy closed system
E = U + Ekin + Epot
energy content open system
E = U + pV + Ekin + Epot = H
A2
A1
m, u2 , p2 , w2
m, u1 , p1 , w1
H1
H2
vibrational and rotational kinetic energy
dQ + dW = dE = 0
energy conservation
potential energy from intermolecular forces
translational kinetic energy
Throttling - thermodynamists explantion
(and first law of thermodynamics)
Household refrigerator cycle
Nitrogen
Linde/Hampson refrigeration cycle
QW
Qref
Linde and Hampson
Linde liquefier
C. von Linde
1842-1934
Hampson liquefier
Nitrogen
Linde/Hampson refrigeration cycle
QW
Qref
Claude
refrigeration
cycle
QW = TdS
Qref = TdS
Carnot cycle
Tw
Ideal
heat removed / heat introduced
QW = (SA - SB) * TW
perfect
gas
Qref = (SD - SC) * TC
energy conservation
QW = Qref + W
and (SA - SB) = (SD - SC)
W = (SA - SB) * (TW - TC)
coefficient of performance or efficiency
(index i = ideal)
COPi = i = Qref / W = TC / (TW - TC)
isobaric
work
Tc
refrig.
power
isochoric
isentropic
D
S
TC
80 K
20K
4K
COPi, i
0.364
0.071
0.014
figure of merit or
thermodynamic (Carnot) efficiency
FOM = COPreal / COPi = th = real / i
QW
Qref
no gain with expansion machine in household refrigerator
Summary - refrigeration
refrigeration can be achieved by
contact with a colder surface
throttling
work extraction
refrigeration can reach lower temperatures by
heat recovery
Cycles
Bricks to build a refrigerator
A - expansion device
J-T valve
expansion
machine
B - heat regeneration/recuperation
heat exchanger
regenerator
Refrigeration cycles/principles
throttling
without
heat recovery
with recuperator
cascade
sorption
Joule Thomson
Linde Hampson
dilution
expansion
Ranque Hilsch
Claude
Brayton
Collins
other principles
thermoelectric
(cascade)
magnetic
with regenerator
Stirling
Solvay
Vuilleumier
Gifford McMahon
pulse tube
Mixed refrigerant cascade
(MRC) refrigerator (Klimenko)
isothermal
compression
Pictets cascade
Cascade refrigerator
compression A
compression B
compression C
natural gas feed
natural gas
feed
liquid
propane
liquid
ethylene
liquid
methane
LNG
LNG storage
Refrigeration cycles/principles
throttling
without
heat recovery
with recuperator
cascade
sorption
Joule Thomson
Linde Hampson
dilution
expansion
Ranque Hilsch
Claude
Brayton
Collins
other principles
thermoelectric
(cascade)
magnetic
with regenerator
Stirling
Solvay
Vuilleumier
Gifford McMahon
pulse tube
J-T cooler
By courtesy of Air Liquide
Dilution refrigerator
principle
temperature reduction
by dilution of He3 in a
He4 bath
combined with a heat
exchanger
range
e.g. 15mK - 2K
By courtesy of Lot Oriel Group Europe
Refrigeration cycles/principles
throttling
without
heat recovery
with recuperator
cascade
sorption
Joule Thomson
Linde Hampson
dilution
expansion
Ranque Hilsch
Claude
Brayton
Collins
other principles
thermoelectric
(cascade)
magnetic
with regenerator
Stirling
Solvay
Vuilleumier
Gifford McMahon
pulse tube
Modified Claude cycle refrigerator
Linde refrigerator as
used for the LHC
Aluminium fin plate heat exchanger
18kW at 4.4K
Expansion machines
Expansion machines
Refrigeration cycles/principles
throttling
without
heat recovery
with recuperator
cascade
sorption
Joule Thomson
Linde Hampson
dilution
expansion
Ranque Hilsch
Claude
Brayton
Collins
other principles
thermoelectric
(cascade)
magnetic
with regenerator
Stirling
Solvay
Vuilleumier
Gifford McMahon
pulse tube
Principle of regenerator cycles
Compression
Cooler
HP
Recuperator
LP
HP
LP
HP
LP
Regenerator
Refrigeration
various types of regenerators
Expansion
Vol.
Claude cycle
Stirling cycle
Solvay cycle
Gifford - McMahon cycle
pulse tube
Stirling cycle refrigerator
Cycle
1 - Compression
in warm end
2 - Displacement
warm cold
3 - Expansion
in cold end
4 - Displacement
cold warm
By courtesy of Stirling Cryogenics and Refrigeration BV
By courtesy of Thales Cryogenics
Principle of regenerator cycles
Compression
Cooler
HP
Recuperator
LP
HP
LP
HP
LP
Regenerator
Refrigeration
1.5 W
at 4.2K
Expansion
Vol.
Claude cycle
Stirling cycle
Solvay cycle
Gifford - McMahon cycle
pulse tube
By courtesy of Sumitomo Heavy Industries
Gifford - McMahon cycle refrigerator
1.5 W at 4.2K
By courtesy of Sumitomo Heavy Industries
Principle of regenerator cycles
Compression
Cooler
HP
Recuperator
LP
HP
LP
HP
LP
Regenerator
By courtesy of
Sumitomo Heavy Industries
Refrigeration
Expansion
Vol.
Claude cycle
Stirling cycle
Solvay cycle
Gifford - McMahon cycle
pulse tube
Ranque Hilsch
Vortex tube
a vortex is created by tangential injection
accelleration of molecules from external to internal vortex
friction between vortices faster molecules of internal vortex work on
slower molecules of external vortex
Commercial refrigerators and cryocoolers
10000
P [W]
1000
Gif.-McMahon
Stirling
Pulsetube
Claude
100
10
Sonstige
1
0.1
1
10
T [K]
100
Other refrigeration principles
radiation cooling
space simulation chamber
magnetic refrigeration
thermoelectric cooling - Peltier cooler
Bath cryostat
Day 2
Introduction to Cryogenic Engineering
MONDAY From History to Modern Refrigeration Cycles (G.Refrigerants
Perini)
Standard Cryostats
Material properties
TUESDAY Standard Components, Cryogenic Design
(G. Perini)
Specifying
a refrigeration task
Manufacturing techniques
and selected hardware
components
WEDNESDAY Heat Transfer and Insulation (G. Vandoni)
THURSDAY Safety, Information Resources (G. Perini)
FRIDAY Applications of Cryogenic Engineering (T. Niinikoski)
Refrigerants
Refrigerants - states
Refrigerants - ranges
1000
100
T [K]
liquid/gas. (<10bar)
liquid/gas. (<Tb)
solid/gas. (>10mbar)
10
X
C2 e
H
C2 4
H6
CO
2
F2
Ar
O
2
CH
4
Kr
N2
CO
D2
Ne
He
3
He
4
H2
Refrigerants - data
Refrigerant
He3
He4
H2
D2
Ne
N2
CO
F2
Helium
Helium
Hydrogen
Deuterium
Neon
Nitrogen
Carbon
Fluorine
Monoxide
Temperatures [K]
2-phase equilibrium at 10 mbar
liq
0.97
liq
1.67
triple point
boiling point at 1.01325bar
3.19
4.22
2-phase equilibrium at 10 bar
critical point
Refrigerant
3.33
15
18.1
53
57
58
13.9
18.7
24.559
63.148
68.09
53.6
20.3
23.6
27.097
77.313
81.624
85.24
31.36
34.7
37.531
103.641
108.959
33.19
38.3
44.49
126.19
132.8
O2
CH4
Kr
Xe
C2H4
C2H6
CO2
Argon
Oxygen
Methane
Krypton
Xenon
Ethylene
Ethane
Carbon
liq
liq
60.7
61.3
76.1
84.3
117.3
83.82
54.361
90.67
115.94
161.36
boiling point at 1.01325bar
87.281
90.191
111.685
119.765
2-phase equilibrium at 10 bar
116.55
119.623
149.198
critical point
150.66
154.58
190.56
triple point
144.41
Ar
Temperatures [K]
2-phase equilibrium at 10 mbar
5.2
11.4
liq
117.6
127.8
151.2
165.038
169.242
184.548
194.65
149.198
218.612
221.25
241.9
233.038
109.43
289.73
282.35
305.33
Specific heat
Particularities of Hydrogen
exists in two molecular spin states:
orthohydrogen and parahydrogen
equilibrium depends on temperature
300K
20.4K
75% ortho 25% para
0.2% ortho 99.8% para
conversion is slow (days) and exotherm
Qconv = -703 kJ/kgortho
or 527 kJ/kgn-H2 > evaporation enthalpy of 447kJ/kg
specific heat and thermal conductivity
of ortho- and parahydrogen are
significantly different
forms slush
Particularities of Helium
transition to a superfluid phase below
the -point (2.17K)
effects:
viscosity decreases by several
orders of magnitude
creeps up the wall
thermomechanic (fountain) effect
heat conductivity increases by
several orders of magnitude
second sound
due to the two-fluid character
Standard
Cryostats
Cryostats - bath cryostats 1
principle
direct cooling of probe
in cryogenic liquid bath
operation range: 1 - 4,2 K
(63 - 78 K with LN2)
advantages
no vibrations
stable temperatures
up-time (LHe-bath)
several days (consumption
0,5-1% per hour)
disadvantages
long cool-down time
(in the order of 1 hour)
Courtesy of Janis Research Company, Inc.
Cryostats - bath cryostats 2
tails
cryostat add-on for different
applications: e.g.
NMR-magnets or
optical systems
Courtesy of Janis Research Company, Inc.
Cryostats - bath cryostats 3
anticryostat
a) evacuated interspace
probes can be exchanged while cryostat
remains cold
b) interspace flooded with contact gas
operation - the temperature control is
achieved with a heater in the probe support
interspace
Zwischenraum
probe
Probe
Cryostats - evaporation cryostats 1
principle
A small flow of cryogen is
evaporated and cools the probe
operation range 1.5-300K
indirect cooling of probe
i.e.
probe in contact gas shown)
or
probe in vacuum
or
Courtesy of AS Scientific Products Ltd.
Cryostats - evaporation cryostats 2
principle
direct cooling
i.e.
probe submerged in the evaporated
helium/nitrogen
Courtesy of Janis Research Company, Inc.
Cryostats - evaporation cryostats 3
principle
without liquid cryogen baths
advantages
compact
low cost
flexible orientation
fast cool-down
(in the order of 10 minutes)
disadvantages
high consumption (e.g. 0,5l LHe/h)
temperatur e control close to boiling
point difficult
Courtesy of Janis Research Company, Inc.
Cryostats - overall system
Courtesy of CryoVac GmbH & Co KG
Cryostats - refrigerator cryostats
principles
operation range 4,5 -300K
advantages
compact
no cryogenic liquids
low operation costs
high autonomy
flexible orientation
disadvantages
high investment cost
some can create vibrations
Courtesy of CRYO Industries of America, Inc.
Specification
What to specify?
Refrigeration task and operation conditions
refrigeration object dimensions, operation
temperature and cooling principle, cooldown and warm-up conditions
Minimum requirements
capacities, functions, materials, redundancies, measurement points and precision,
automation degree
Installation and environmental conditions
infrastructure (power supply, cooling, comp. air),
accessibility, crane, environ-ment (vibrations,
magnetic field, radiation)
emissions (noise, vibrations, gas emission)
Interfaces
infrastructure (gas recovery, cooling water, instrument
air, energy), controls
Quality requirements
Documentation
drawings, design calculations, diagrammes, manuals,
certificates, maintenance schedule, safety analysis
- paper form or computer readable
Specification - typical quality requirements
Materials
Leak rates
e.g.
< 10-8 mbarls-1
individual welds
-7
-6
-1
< 10 - 10 mbarls overall leakrate He->Vac
< 10-6 - 10-5 mbarls-1 overall leakrate air->Vac
< 10-4 mbarls-1
valve seats
-4
-1
flanges with non-metallic
< 10 mbarls
seals
e.g. special material specifications
material certificates
Joining techniques
requirements for weldments
requirements for joints
Surface properties
free of ferritic impurities
dirt, grease, weld XXX
Thermal losses
z.B.
0,3-2,3% /24h liq. helium transp. vessel
0,1-0,5% /24h liquid nitrogen tank
0,5-2 W/m liquid nitrogen transfer line
5-500 mW/m shielded helium transfer
line
Materials
Materials - selection criteria
mechanical strength
0.2, B, E, ,
working properties
forming, extrusion, welding
further properties
magnetic properties., electric properties
thermal properties
heat conductivity, heat capacity, thermal contraction
surface properties
corr. resist., emissivity, spec. surf. area, outgassing
oeconomic properties
price, availability
Materials - selection criteria
1.5662 1.4306/07 1.4404/35 Al 5083
9% Nickel
304L
316L Al Mg4,5Mn
price/kg
price/kg max
Rp0,2 at RT
Rm at RT
elongation
density
thermal conductivity at 4K
thermal cond. integral 4K-300K
CHF
CHF
MPa
MPa
%
kg/m3
W /(mK)
W /m
Rp0,2/price
th.cond.integral/Rp0,2
Rp0,2/density
MPa/CHF
W /(MPam)
GPam3/kg
3.5
Cu-OF
515
690
20
7900
0.626
5556.3
4.5
17.3
175
450
40
7900
0.227
3031
4.7
21.7
225
600
35
7900
0.2
3031
7.3
6.6
125
275
17
2657
0.5
23460
9
9.5
200
240
18
8960
320
162000
147.14
10.79
65.19
38.89
17.32
22.15
47.87
13.47
28.48
17.12
187.68
47.05
22.22
810.00
22.32
3.7165
GF
Ti Al6 V4 reinforced
epoxy
70
35
81
180
820
250
890
250
6
4540
1948
0.4
0.06
1416
167.2
11.71
1.73
180.62
7.14
0.67
128.34
PTFE
26.5
26.5
18.5
18.5
530
2200
0.043
70
0.70
3.78
8.41
Materials - thermal properties
heat capacity
Debye temperature of metals:
Fe 453K, Al 398, Cu 343, Pb 88K
thermal conductivity
energy transport by electrons
Materials - steels
austenitic stainless steel
e.g.
1.4301 (304),
1.4306/07 (304L),
1.4311 (304LN),
1.4401 (316),
1.4404/35 (316L),
1.4541 (321),
1.4550 (347)
e.g.
1.3912 (FeNi36, Invar)
1.5662 (X8Ni9, 9% nickel steel)
reference
AD W10
properties
high strength (1.5662)
low thermal contract. (1.3912)
cheaper than stainless steel
properties
universally applicable
good weldabilty
low temperature steel
remark
1.5662 is not suitable for
application below -196C
Materials - non ferrous materials
Al and Aluminium alloys
Cu and Copper alloys
e.g. AW3003 (Al-Mn1Cu),
AW1100 (Al99,0Cu),
AW6061 (Al-Mg1SiCu),
AW6063 (Al-Mg),
AW5083 (Al-Mg4,5Mn)
e.g.
SF-Cu (99.9)
CuZn28Sn1 (2.0470, brass)
CuNi30Mn1Fe (2.0882, Nibronze)
CuBe1,9 (Berylliumbronze)
properties
high thermal cond. (1100, 6063)
moderate strength (6061, 5083)
good vacuum properties, low
emissivity
extrudable
weldable
reference
AD W 6/1
high thermal cond. (annealed)
high strength and good thermal
conductivity
reference
AD W 6/2
Materials - polymers
non filled polymers
filled + fibre reinforced poly.
thermoplastic polymers
PI (Kapton, Vespel)
insulation, seals
PTFE (Teflon)
seals
duroplastic polymers
PET (Mylar)
superinsulation, windows
epoxy resins
electrical insulation
fibre reinforced polymers
with glas fibres
thermal expansivity like metals
with carbon fibres
thermal conductivity like steel
thermal expansion ~0
Kevlar fibres
low weight
powder filled polymers
with powders to adjust the
themal expansivity
with powders to increase the
thermal conductivity
reference
G. Hartwig: Polymer Properties at Room and Cryogenic Temperatures, 1994, Plenum Press
Materials - others
glass
e.g.
borosilicate glass
cryostats
quarz glass
windows
ceramics
e.g.
Aluminiumoxide,
Zirconiumsilicate
filler powders
Siliziumdioxide
Perlite
Materials - mech., opt. and electrical propert.
mechanical properties
emissivitity
see lecture by G. Vandoni
Bei tiefen Temperaturen erhhen
sich bei vielen Werkstoffen die
Dehngrenze und die Zugfestigkeit,
die Bruchdehnung verringert sich
jedoch in vielen Fllen.
(Tieftemperaturversprdung)
electrical properties
energy transport by electrons
analogous to thermal conductivity,
in alloys the effect of
Strstellenstreuung becomes
predominant.
Techniques
and
Selected
Hardware
Methoden und Bauelemente
Joining technique and seals
Valves
Pipework and transfer lines
Radiation shields
Adsorbers
Heaters
Instrumentation
Vacuum technique
Joining techniques - overview
welding (TIG)
advantage - excellent leak tightness
for precision manufacturing - electron
beam welding
material transitions with friction
welded joints
attention - copper forms bubbles
provide for eventual cuts
soldering
hard soldering
thermal expansivity to be considered
good for copper - stainless steel joints
disadvantage - ageing possible
soft soldering
e.g. In97-Ag3, In52-Sn48
attention - standard Sn60-Pb40 soft
solder becomes brittle at low temp.
not applicable for stainless steel
special soft solder exists:
non superconducting
with low thermo-electric potent.
glueing
electrical feed throughs
electrical insulation
thermal contacts
e.g. sensor attachement
e.g.
Araldite CW1304GB/HY1300GB,
Eccobond 285 + Hrter 24LV,
Epo-Tek T7110,
Poxycomet F,
Scotch-Weld DP190,
Stycast 2850FT + hardener 9,
Joining techniques - examples
welded joints
Schweissverbindungen
soldered joints
Hartltverbindungen
Stossnaht
butt weld
Kupfer
copper
Edelstahl
stainless
steel
Lippenschweissnaht
lipp weld
Muffenausfhrung
socket style
Innenliegende Schweissnaht
Joining techniques - errors
thermal contraction
identical materials - different temperatures
shear load of the joint due to
the contraction of the internal
part
different materials - parallel cooling
different thermal expansivity can
cause plastic deformation of one
component
e.g. Aluminium - stainless steel
Al outside - plastic deformation of Al
Al inside - extreme load on the joint
cold
kalt
Vakuum
vacuum
warm
warm
Aluminium
aluminium
Edelstahl
stainless steel
Joining techniques - flanges 1
double seal for leak testing
(main seal Kapton)
separation of sealing function
and force is possible
WELD
material combinations
In order to obtain a constant
force, the thermal expansivity of
flange and bolt must be taken
into account.
e.g.:
Flanges of stainless steel and
aluminium with stainless steel
bolts can be joined with an Invar
spacer.
Joining techniques - flanges 2
Flange
risk of leaks by manufacturing
Inclosures from the material
manufacturing are lengthened
by the forming process.
The prevailing inclosure
direction must be taken
into account as they
can otherways lead
to leaks.
Alternatives:
forged material,
vacuum molten material
Joining techniques - seals 1
seals
copper, aluminium
sufficient compression force along
the sealing line is required to ensure
yield
indium
e.g. V-groove mit seal cord
cross section seal cord =
1.5 x cross section of the groove
polyimide (Kapton)
compression force of 50N/mm2
Joining techniques - seals 2
seals
O-rings
e.g.
out of metal - some are coated,
out of polymers with internal spring
NOTE: Seals containing polymers
cannot be used in a vacuum
environment due to their high
diffusion rate.
Joining techniques - heat transfer aspect
Aim - increase
the heat transfer
surface contact
Q = f(surface) ;
Q = f(contact pressure) !
e.g. Cu-Cu at 300K, 500N - 10-2-10-1 W/K
Cu-Cu at 4K, 500N - 3*10-3-10-2 W/K
Au-Au at 4,2K, 100N - 10-1 W/K
Au-Au at 4,2K, 500N - 4*10-1W/K
Improvement by increased contact
pressure, vacuum grease (Apiezon
grease) or gold-plated contact surfaces
where possible solder or weld
(silver solder joint 2 W/Kcm2)
glue with filled epoxy resins
connectors
flexible bands and braids
heat pipes
Aim - decrease
the heat transfer
principles
reduction of ratio cross section/length
tie rods, cables (steel, Kevlar)
increase of the number of heat
transfer barriers
chains, bundle of sheet
supports
Verbindungen - Wrmeleitung
Cu
99.999%
Cu
Cu
Al
99.98% OFE-99.95% 99.99%
Al
AW 3003
AW 5083
AW 6061
AW 6063
99%
Saphir
Quarz
1.5662
Polykrist.
Einkristall
9% Ni St
Be-Cu
Ti 6Al 4V
Wrmeleitung [W/mK]
4K
7000
620
320
3150
54
11
0.506
9.53
34
111
582
0.626
1.879
0.403
76 K
570
600
550
430
290
140
57.1
116
241
1030
56.6
12.654
35.991
3.36
300 K
400
420
400
235
220
160
128
160
201
45
7.5
27.827
4-76 K
307000
103000
68600
182000
22000
6720
2360
5700
16015
248000
32400
496.2
76-300 K
93000
97000
93400
57000
50800
34980
21100
30600
45458
37200
4190
5060.1
1.4301
1.4306
Edelstahl
1.4436
Kevlar
CFK
PTFE
PMMA
304
304L
310
316
0.227
0.272
0.241
0.272
0.060
8.01
7.854
5.952
7.854
1.271
14.9
15.309
11.628
15.309
7.7
Wrmeleitungsintegral [W/m]
PET
1478
156
1260
GFK
GFK
PA
G-10
G-10
(Polyamid)
0.029
0.063
0.072
0.012
0.043
0.058
0.038
0.019
0.011
4K
0.81
0.415
0.279
0.292
0.232
0.215
0.156
0.104
0.125
76 K
5.05
0.82
0.608
0.337
0.26
0.24
0.142
0.192
amorph
PCTFE
PI
50% krist. (Polyimid)
Wrmeleitung [W/mK]
300 K
Wrmeleitungsintegral [W/m]
317
318
247
318
2760
2713
2040
2713
kleines T :
52.5
22.5
19.2
14.7
13.0
12.8
10.1
814
148
97.0
75.1
57.2
52.9
A
Q& = T
l
7.8
5.73
5.6
4-76 K
27.9
37.7
76-300 K
groes T :
T2
A 2
Q& = (T ) dT
l T1
mit A = Querschnit t, l = Lnge, = Wrmeleit ung und (T ) dT = Wrmeleitu ngsintegra l
T1
Ventile - Spezifikationsbeispiel
Specification of Valves operating at Cryogenic Temperature
Sealing system
Cryogenic valves must be able to cover both the control and the shut-off function.
Only valves of the extended-spindle type with body and stem in co-axial design are
accepted. These valves must be welded to the pipework and to the top plates of the
cold boxes. Rotating type valves or valves with actuators inside the cold boxes will
generally not be accepted. Proposals of exceptions for specific reasons have to be
submitted to CERN with full justification, for approval.
The choice of any non-metallic material must be in accordance with the CERN
Safety Instruction 41.
Materials and Design
The valve body must be in austenitic stainless steel AISI 316L or the equivalent DIN
type. The spindle may be of the same material as the body or may consist partly of
composite material. In case of composite material, the steel-tocomposite
connection must have a mechanical link in addition to any glued link. This
mechanical link must be realised in order not to weaken the structure of the
composite part. For valve stems in composite material, the difference in thermal
contraction between ambient and liquid helium temperature must be compensated
by the design in order stay below two percent of the valve travel.
The spindle-and-bellows assembly must be dismountable from the top and must
allow changing either the seat seal or the valve trim without the necessity to break
the isolation vacuum.
In order to allow for misalignment introduced by the piping following thermal
expansion and contraction, valve plugs for a maximum seat diameter of 15 mm or
above, must have a flexible connection to the valve stem. For plugs with a smaller
seat diameter this misalignment may be compensated be the elasticity of the valve
stem. The stem itself must by its design allow for such misalignments, any guiding
of it in the valve body must be protected against friction. Any flexible connection of
the valve plug to the valve stem must be designed such that vibration of the plug
due to the fluid flow is prevented and no damage of the plug, the seat or the seal
occurs.
A flexible and clearance-free clutch device must protect the valve stem from any
misalignments introduced from the actuator.
The valve bore and plug must be fabricated with a tolerance allowing for a
rangeability of at least 1:100.
The static and the dynamic seal must be placed at the top warm end of the valve,
easily available for maintenance or replacement.
The dynamic spindle seal must be welded metallic bellows. The bellows must be
protected against twist load. Its lifetime design shall be made for a minimum of
10'000 full travel cycles at full design pressure. The bellows seal must be backed by
an additional safety stuffing box with check-connection to the space enclosed in
between.
The static seal to the ambient between body and spindle inset must be an O-ring
seal. The O-ring seal groove must be designed for pressure and vacuum
conditions. For sub-atmospheric operation conditions a double O-ring seal joint,
covering static and dynamic sealing, with guard gas connection into the space inbetween must be included.
The valve seat must be tightened with a soft seal for the shut-off function that must
be placed on an area different from the regulation cone of the plug. For this soft
seal only plastic materials proven for operation at liquid helium temperature are
accepted.
Tests and material certificates
The chemical and physical qualities of the raw materials for pressure stress parts
must be verified and documented by material test certificates.
The following tests, all recorded with a written protocol must be carried out on each
ready assembled valve.
A pressure test, following the CERN Pressure Vessel Code D2, which refers to the
European Directive CE93/C246.
A functional test to verify that the valve stem moves without friction
Leak tests to verify the leak rates listed below.
The cryogenic valves must satisfy the following leak rate criteria at maximum
working pressure and room temperature.
Individual leak rate to atmosphere10-6 Pa m3/s(10-5 mbar l/s), Individual leakage
across valves seat:10-5 Pa m3/s(10-4 mbar l/s), Individual leak rate to the vacuum
insulation10-9 Pa m3/s(10-8 mbar l/s).
Valves - design 1
By courtesy of Flowserve Kmmer
Valves - design 2
valve with integrated actuator
By courtesy of Flowserve Kmmer
Valves - design (DIN534)
numerical value equation!
Liquid (incompressible fluid) :
m&
kV =
1000 p
with = density in kg/m 3 , p = pressure drop in bar,
& = mass flow in kg/h
m
Gas :
subcritical flow (p 2 > p1/2)
kV =
m&
519
T1
G p p2
with T1 = temperature in K, G = density at normal conditions,
p 2 = pressure in bar
supercritical flow (p 2 p1/2)
kV =
m&
259.5 p1
T1
Pipework - pressure drop
p =
v2
mit = Dichte, v = Geschwindigkeit, l = Lnge, d = Durchmesser
Reynolds Zahl :
Re =
Wellrohr oder
Ringrillenrohr
vd
mit = kinematische Viskositt : =
, = dynamische Viskositt
laminare Strmung (Re < 2300) :
64
lam =
Re
turbulente Strmung (Re 2300) :
turb aus Nikuradse - Diagramm entnehmen
oder fr glatte Rohre
Formel von Blasius fr 2300 < Re < 105 :
turb =
0,3164
Re 0, 25
Formel von Nikuradse fr 105 < Re < 108
0,221
turb = 0,0032 + 0, 237
Re
bei Re ~ 105
pipe systems - direction of installation
z.B. Sicherheitsventil
ascent towards warm end in order to
allow thermal stratification
otherways - descend after a
short ascent
avoid low points (Siphons) in liquid
carrying lines
take into account thermal contraction
Transfer lines - design 1
Courtesy of NEXANS Deutschland Industries GmbH & Co. KG
Transfer lines
Courtesy of AS Scientific Products Ltd.
Transfer lines - design 2
Transfer lines - couplings 1
Courtesy of NEXANS Deutschland Industries GmbH & Co. KG
Transfer lines - couplings 2
Courtesy of NEXANS Deutschland Industries GmbH & Co. KG
Transfer lines - phase separator
phase separator
The installation of a phase
separator at the delivery end of
a siphons can improve the
transfer of liquid.
PHASE SEPARATOR
GAS
NOTE: As these filters can clog,
they should only be installed in
accessible places.
SINTER BRONZE
LIQUID
Shield - design
a)
a) shield out of two concentric cylinders
b) shield with brazed cooling pipes
c) shield assembled from extruded
elements (e.g. finned pipes)
d) quilted panel type shield
(made by 1. spot welding two plates
and 2. hydraulically forming them)
b)
c)
d)
Shield - design
q
Distance of the cooling pipes :
l=
8 s (Tmax Trefrigerant )
q&
with
= thermal conductivity,
s = thickness of the shield,
T(refrigerant)
T(Khlleitung)
Tmax = maximum temperature of the shield in between two cooling pipes,
q& = specific heat flux
T(max)
Adsorber - design
Capacity
VAdsorber =
x m& T
with
x - concentration of impurities
& - mass flow
m
T - up time
- density of the impurities at RT
- adsorption capacity
Pressure drop - Ergun equation
p =
150(1 ) 2 u0 L 1.75 L u02 1
+
3 D p2
D p2
3
with
D p - particle diameter
L - length of the adsorber
&
V
u 0 - gas velocity =
A
- void fraction
- viscosity
- gas density
Attention Avoid the formation
of a turbulence layer!
Adsorber - data
bulk density
[kg/m ]
3
480
[kg/m ]
1920
[kg/m ]
[kg/m ]
720
[2]
2200
[2]
1200
[2]
solid density
[kg/m ]
particle density
[kg/m ]
750
void fraction
[-]
0.64
[-]
0.6
maximum regenertaion temperature
[K]
410
[K]
590
per unit of mass
specific heat capacity at RT
specific surface area
[kJ/kgK]
6
[10 m /kg]
0.84
per unit of bulk volume
3
[kJ/m K]
6
Source
silica gel
activated charcoal
Material properties
1.2
[10 m /m ]
0.173
[m /m ]
0.235
[m /m ]
0.216
[m /m ]
0.182
[m /m ]
0.240
[m /m ]
0.246
[m /m ]
403.2
[2]
per unit of mass
[kJ/kgK]
6
576
[10 m /kg]
83
[m /kg]
113
[m /kg]
104
[m /kg]
87
[m /kg]
115
[m /kg]
118
[m /kg]
0.92
per unit of bulk volume
3
[kJ/m K]
6
0.78
[10 m /m ]
0.127
[m /m ]
0.132
[m /m ]
0.122
[m /m ]
0.135
[m /m ]
0.250
[m /m ]
0.196
[m /m ]
662.4
[2]
561.6
[2]
91
[1]
95
[1]
88
[1]
Adsorption properties
3
monolayer capacity for N2 at 90.1K following BET
[m /kg]
monolayer capacity for O2 at 90.1K following BET
[m /kg]
monolayer capacity for Ar at 90.1K following BET
[m /kg]
monolayer capacity for N2 at 77.3K following BET
[m /kg]
adsorption capacity for N2 at 76K
[m /kg]
adsorption capacity for N2 at 77,4K
[m /kg]
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Sources:
[1] Cryogenic Process Engineering, Timmerhaus; Plenum Press, New York, 1989.
[2] Cryogenic Fundamentals, Haselden; Academic Press, London, 1971.
[3] Hiza and Kidnay, The Adsorption of Methane on Silika Gel at Low Temperatures, Adv. Cryog. Eng., 6, 1961, 457-466.
[4] Kidnay and Hiza, The purification of Helium Gas by Physical Adsorption at 76K, AIChE Journal, 16, 6, 1970, 949-954.
[5] Unpublished measurements by Air Liquide: Adsorption from a 99,5% He + 0,5% N2 mixture at 70-150bar (activated charcoal) and 30bar (silica gel), respectively.
97
[1]
180
[3,4]
141
[5]
Heater elements
Heater wire
e.g. constantan wire (CuNi),
manganin wire (CuMnNi)
tension up to 50V
advantage no inertia
Foil heaters
e.g. on polyimide foil (=Kapton foil)
typical power 2W/cm2
on cryogen side or on vacuum side
advantage equally distrib. power
encapsulated heater elements
Tension up to 400V
advantages
- high heating powers are possible
- no electrical feedthroughs
Attention!
For heaters in the liquid safety
interlocks are required for low level
and for vacuum pressure!
Instrumentation - temperature measurement
Primary thermometers
gas thermometer
vapour thermometer
Secondary thermometers
metallic resistances
non-metallic resistances
thermocouples
others: capacitance t,; resonance t.;
inductance t.
Precision factors
sensitivity (e.g. /K )
reproducability (factors - installation,
self heating, ageing)
magnet field dependence
PT 100
Silicon diode
Instrumentation - level and flow
Level measurement
Differential pressure
Superconducting wire
Flow measurement
Differential pressure method
orifice
Venturi tube
V-cone
Capacitance based
not for LHe
Other physical principles
Coriolis
Turbine
V-cone
Insulation vacuum - permanent vacuum
Operation range
10-3mbar (RT) - 10-5mbar (cold)
(i.e. 10-1Pa - 10-3Pa)
EVACUATION
TOOL
Privilege weld connections
Avoid elastomer joints (diffusion)
Extension of the up-time by
installation of adsorber packages
on the cold surfaces
activation (regeneration) is
important
PUMPING PORT
Insulation vacuum - pumped vacuum
Operation range
10-5mbar (=10-3Pa) and better
Rezipient
RECIPIENT
Primary pump
rule of thumb for pumping speed
SPrimary Pumop > 0.005 x SHigh Vacuum Pump
Secondary pump (high vac. pump) types
V1
Diffusion pump
advantage - cheap
Turbomolecular pump
the pumping speed depends on the
molecular weight
advantage - hydrocarbon free vacuum
disadvantage - low pumping speed for
He and H2
V2
HochvakuumHIGH
VACUUM
pumpe
PUMP
Vorpumpe PUMP
PRIMARY
V3
Insulation vacuum - vacuum technique
avoid trapped volumes
trapped volumes can create virtual
leaks
DISCONTINUOUS
WELD
CONTINUOUS
WELD
POSSIBLE
mgliche
VENTS
Entlftungen
Day 3
Introduction to Cryogenic Engineering
MONDAY From History to Modern Refrigeration Cycles (G. Perini)
TUESDAY Standard Components, Cryogenic Design (G. Perini)
WEDNESDAY Heat Transfer and Insulation (G. Vandoni)
Physiological hazards
of accidents and failures
THURSDAY Safety, Information Resources (G.Sources
Perini)
Information resources
FRIDAY Applications of Cryogenic Engineering (T. Niinikoski)
Safety
Physiological Hazards
Cold Burns
- Asphyxiation - Toxicity
Cold Burns
Contact with cryogenic liquids or cold surfaces
Asphyxiation
Reduction of oxygen content
Toxicity
CO, F2, O3
Physiological Hazards
Cold Burns - Asphyxiation - Toxicity
Effects:
Similar to burns
Protection:
First Aid:
=
identical procedure as in the
case of burns
rinse injured part with lukewarm
water
cover injured skin with sterile gaze
do not apply powder or creams
eye protection
gloves of insulating and non
combustible material which can be
easily removed
high, tight-fitting shoes
trousers (without turn-ups) which
overlap the shoes
Physiological Hazards
Cold Burns
Effect:
- Asphyxiation - Toxicity
19% - 15%
15% - 12%
12% - 10%
10% - 8%
8% - 6%
4%
pronounced reduction of reaction speed
deep breaths, fast pulse, co-ordination difficulties
vertigo, false judgement, lips slightly blue
nausea, vomiting, unconsciousness
death within 8 minutes, from 4-8 minutes brain damages
coma within 40 seconds, no breathing, death
First Aid:
In case of indisposition - remove person from the danger area.
In case of unconsciousness - call doctor immediately.
Protection / Prevention:
ensure sufficient ventilation + oxygen monitors
Dewar content [l] < laboratory content [m3] / 4
Feed exhaust into stack or into recovery pipeline
Decanting stations only in large halls or outside
Observe rules for confined spaces
Observe the rules for transport of dangerous goods
Physiological Hazards
Cold Burns
- Asphyxiation - Toxicity
Physiological Hazards
Cold Burns
Effect:
Carbon monoxide Poisoning by
replacement of oxygen in the blood
Ozone - Irritation of eyes and skin already
by concentrations as low as 1ppm.
Fluorine - Irritation of eyes and skin.
First Aid:
- Asphyxiation - Toxicity
Carbon monoxide same as asphyxiation
Ozone and Fluorine - Rinse thorougly the
affected areas of skin with tap water.
Protection / Prevention:
Carbon monoxide and Ozone same as asphyxiation.
Fluorine - The pungent smell is already detected by the
human nose at concentrations of 0.2ppm.
Physiological Hazards
Marking/identification
Warning of cold:
Storage and transport vessels (EN DIN 1251):
for example
LIQUID NITROGEN
Pipes, pipelines and exhausts - recommendation (DIN 2403):
for example -
HELIUM
HELIUM
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Embrittlement
Thermal stress
Pressure build-up by evaporation
Condensation
Combustion and explosion hazard
Electric breakdown
Accidents and failures
due to operation
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Low temperature
embrittlement
Affects most materials more
orless pronounced
Is measured by
charpy impact tests
Suitable for low temperatures
are materials with fcc structure
e.g.Cu, Ni, Cu Ni, Al, Al-alloys,
Zr, Ti, stainless steels see AD W10
700
Zugfestigkeit
600
Spannung [MPa]
500
400
Dehngrenze
300
200
100
0
0
50
100
150
200
Temperatur [K]
250
300
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Low temperature embrittlement
DN200
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Hydrogen embrittlement
Several mechanisms exist,
can originate from material
production or from operation
At risk are:
Metals with bcc-structure (e.g. ferritic steels),
High tensile steels used in the range 200-300K,
Materials under loads close to their limit of elasticity
Means of protection:
linings or coatings with other metals,
over dimensioning
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Thermal Stress
Contraction due to cool-down
permanent loads in operation,
e.g. in pipes
temporary loads,
e.g. during cool-down of
thick walled components
STEEL
ALUMINIUM
POLYMERS
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Pressure build-up by evaporation
due to excessive heat load
-
Cool-down of a component, of an installation
Heating components heaters, quenching magnet
Loss of insulation vacuum
thermo-acoustic oscillations (Taconis)
due to other physical effects
-
Boiling retardation
stratification
roll-over (LNG only)
desorption of cryopumped gas
1l liquid refrigerant (TS)
500-1500 l gas (300K)
Pressure build-up
Evaporation by excessive heat load
fast cool-down of
a component or
a part of the installation
excessive heating by
a component e.g. quench
by installations e.g. heaters
loss of the insulation vacuum
thermoacoustic oscillations
Pressure build-up
other physical effects
boiling retardation
stratification
rollover in LNG tanks
release of cryopumped gas
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Pressure build-up
Means of protection:
safety devices
Principles:
redundancy and
diversity
Calculation of safety valves:
AD-Merkblatt A1/A2
DIN EN 13648 (=ISO 21013)
19
17
15
13
Pressures
Densities
Enthalpies
11
Saturation
Highlight
3
0
10
Ent r o p y [ J/ g * K]
12
14
16
18
20
Calculation of safety valves for LHe-containers
1. Determination of the maximum heat flux
Possible heat sources:
- loss of vacuum,
- fire,
- electrical heaters,
- quench in superconducting coils, etc.
typical heat flux in case of insulation vacuum loss:
0.6W/cm2
LHe-cryostat with 10 layers superinsul.
3.8W/cm2
LHe-cryostat without superinsulation
from W. Lehmann, G. Zahn, "Safety aspects for LHe
cryostats and LHe containers", Proc. of the Int. Cryog.
Eng. Conf., 7 (1978) 569-579.
2. Determination of the gas flux
a) Blow-off pressure below critical pressure
m& blowoff
with
Q& surface
gas
1
=
q liquid
q = hevaporation
(in general hHe hHe(1,01325bar, 4,222K) = 20.91J/s)
b) Blow-off pressure above critical pressure
m& blowoff =
with
Q& surface
q
dh
q=v
dv p =const .
(up to 5bar V(dh/dV) hHe(1,01325bar, 4,222K) = 20.91J/s)
dh
m& blowoff = max for v = min
dv
Minima of the pseudo-evaporation enthalpy of helium as a function of
the pressure
blow-off pressure
minimal pseudoevaporation enthalpy
[J/g]
temperature at which
the pseudoevaporation enthalpy
is at its minimum
[K]
22.5
6.4
25.5
6.8
31.2
7.4
10
36.7
7.9
12
41.9
8.4
14
46.8
8.8
18
56.2
9.4
22
65.1
9.7
26
73.3
9.9
30
81.0
9.6
40
95.9
6.6
[bara]
3. Determination of the minimum blow-off aperture
following AD Merkblatt A1, Verband der Technischen
berwachungs-Vereine e.V. (1995).
a) outflow function
p gegen
If
p Kryostat
then (subcritical)
else (supercritical)
2 1
>
+ 1
p gegen
*
1 p Kryostat
2
*
+ 1 +1
gegen
p
Kryostat
+1
b) minimum blow-off surface
Amin . =
m&
2 pcryostat
with = outflow coefficient {0..1}
Condensation
Causes
impurities in refrigerant (air, neon, oil)
leaks, especially in sub-atmospheric
conditions
open exhaust pipes
not insulated or badly insul. surfaces
leaks into the insulation vacuum
Prevention
extensive purging and repeated evacuation before
cool-down
operation with slight overpressure
use of vacuum insulation where possible
otherways use only non-combustible insulation
material equipped with a vapour barrier in order to
stop air and oxygen from reaching the cold surface
Condensation
Plugging of exhaust pipes
open or leaky exhaust pipes
Attention: acceleration by
two exhausts!
thermally connected LN2-screens
leaks when pumping on
cryogen baths
Prevention:
do not leave open dewars
non-return valves in exhaust lines
use only containers with separated
exhaust and safety lines
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Fire and explosion risk:
Methane, LNG, Hydrogen
Oxygen:
Ozone:
accelerates
combustion
processes
Other
combustion
dangers:
reduces
temperature
Oxygen
canthe
beignition
transformed
into Ozone
Superinsulation
foils
on
Polyester
base
by neutron irradiation!
(Mylar)
can
be ignited
easily!
Hazardous
are:
e.g.
O2-impurities
in a liquid
nitrogen
unsuitable
cooling
circuit.materials
impurities,
e.g.
residues
Protect
when
welding!
Discomposes
explosion
likefrom
if triggered
and
processing
by production
the smallest
excitement.
penetration of porous materials by
gaseous and liquid oxygen
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Electric breakdown
Sources of accidents and failures
Properties of materials Properties of refrigerants - Operation
Plant operation
operator errors
usage of unsuitable equipment
operating system errors
malfunctioning or failures of components
failure of safety equipment
Transport accidents
etc.
Preventive measures:
Safety analysis and safety management
Information
Sources
Information sources - literature 1
Plenum Press
1983
G. Walker
Plenum Press
1983
Cryogenic Engineering
T.M. Flynn
Dekker
1997
Cryogenic Engineering
R. Scott
Met Chem. Research 1989
Cryogenic Engineering
B.A. Hands
Academic Press
1986
Cryogenic Process Engineering
K.D.Timmerhaus, T.M.Flynn
Plenum Press
1989
ASME
1993
Cryogenic Regenerative Heat Exchangers
R.A. Ackermann
Plenum Press
1997
Cryogenic Systems
R.F. Barron
Oxford Univ. Press
1985
Cryogenics
W.E. Bryson
Hanser
1999
Handbook of Cryogenic Engineering
J.G.Weisend II
Taylor & Francis
1998
++
Helium Cryogenics
S.W.Van Sciver
Plenum Press
1986
++
+++
++
Low-capacity Cryogenic Refrigeration
G. Walker, E.R. Bingham
Clarendon
1994
Min. refrig. for cryo. sensors and cold electr.
G. Walker
Clarendon
1989
Separation of gases
W.H. Isalski
Clarendon
1989
Cryogenic Processes and Equipment
+ 0- 50 Seiten; ++ 50-100 Seiten; +++ 100-200 Seiten; ++++ 200+ Seiten
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X
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weitere
Themen
Kryostatenba
u
Sicherheit
G. Walker
Cryocoolers II
Instrumentierung
Cryocoolers I
Komponenten
Klteanlagen
Thermodyna
mik Prozesse
Wrmebertragung
Jahr
Werkstoffe
Verlag
Kryogene
Autor
lieferbar
Titel
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nicht wissenschaftlich
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Information sources - literature 2
1999
2002
X
X
Cryogenic Two Phase Flow
N.N. Filina, J.G. Weisend II
Cambridge Univ. Pre 1996
Cryogenic Heat Transfer
R.F. Barron
Taylor & Francis
1999
Heat Cap. and Thermal Exp. at Low Temp.
T.H.K. Barron
Plenum Press
1999
Thermod. Prop. of Cryogenic Fluids
R.T. Jacobsen, S.G. Penoncello, EPlenum Press
1997
Polymer Prop. at Room and Cryog. Temp.
G. Hartwig
Plenum Press
1994
Safety in the Handl. of Cryog. Fluids
F.J.Edeskuty, W.F.Stewart
Plenum Press
1996
weitere
Themen
Sicherheit
Instrumentierung
Kryostatenba
u
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Kryotechnik
W.G. Fastowski, J.W. Petrowski, AAkademie Verlag
1970
Tieftemperaturtechnik
H. Hausen, H. Linde
Springer
1985
Tieftemperaturtechnologie
H. Frey, R.A. Haefer
VDI-Verlag
1981
++
History and origins of cryogenics
R.G. Scurlock
Clarendon
1992
+ 0- 50 Seiten; ++ 50-100 Seiten; +++ 100-200 Seiten; ++++ 200+ Seiten
Komponenten
Klteanlagen
Taylor & Francis
P. Cook
Thermodyna
mik Prozesse
E.I. Asinovsky
Cryogenic Fluids Databook
Wrmebertragung
Cryogenic Discharges
Jahr
Werkstoffe
Verlag
Kryogene
Autor
lieferbar
Titel
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Information sources - journals/conferences
Journals
Cryogenics http://www.elsevier.nl/locate/cryogenics
Conferences
Listing http://cern.ch/Goran.Perinic/conf.htm
Information sources - data bases/formulas
free information sources
UIDAHO Center for Applied Thermodynamic Studies cryogen property program http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~cats/software.htm
NIST Cryogenic Technologies Group material property equations http://cryogenics.nist.gov/NewFiles/material_properties.html
ITS-90 vapour pressure - temp. equation for helium http://www.its-90.com/its-90p3.html
commercial information sources
NIST - Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Pure Fluids Database
http://www.nist.gov/srd/nist12.htm
CRYODATA cryogen and material database http://www.htess.com/software.htm/
Cryogenic Information Center cryogen and material database and bibliography http://www.cryoinfo.org/
End
Extras
The cryogenists toolbox
Internal Energy and Enthalpy
Energy conservation
Entropy Exergy
Diagrams TS,
Cycles
Efficiency
Energy conservation
Bernoulli
static system
Principles of refrigeration
heat
2nd law of thermodynamics
Entropy
dQ/T = S = const
state variables p,T,V, U,H,S
Principles of refrigeration
heat
cyclic process
heat
2nd law of thermodynamics
Exergy
Wex = h1 h RT Tu ( S1 S u )
T
Tw
isentropic
Ideal
B
Tw
Real
B
Work
Tc
Cooling power
adiabatic
Work
Tc
D
S
S1
S2
Summary
throttling
work
Cryogenics past to present
time of I. Newton (1642 - 1727)
R. Boyle (1627 - 1691); E. Mariotte (1620 - 1684)
J J Becher (1635 - 1682), G.E Stahl (1660 - 1734)
G. Amontons (1663 - 1705)
pV=constant
phlogiston
absolute zero
Other talks
VDI
Thermodynamics
Refrigerants
Material properties
Heat transfer
Thermal insulation
Measurement and controls
Safety
Microcoolers -- Large refrigerators
Cryopumps
Other talks
Weisend
basics
cryogens
materials
refrigeration
He II
cryostat design
instrumentation
safety
Quack
temperature reduction
by throttling or mixing
temperature reduction
by work extraction
refrigeration cycles
cryogens
cooling principles
applications
Throttling - as seen by a thermodynamist
first law
energy content
dU = dQ + dW = 0
E = U + pV + Ekin + Epot = H
mu1 + p1 A1w1 = m (u1 + p1v1 ) = mh1
mu1 + p1 A1w1 = m (u1 + p1v1 ) = mh1
mu2 + p2 A2 w2 = m (u2 + p2 v2 ) = mh2
Sailing ship Dunedin, equipped with a
Bell-Coleman air cycle refrigerator. The
ship left Port Chalmers on 15 February
and arrived in England on 14 May 1882.
What is cryogenics?
Time of I. Newton
J J Becher (1635 - 1682), G.E Stahl (1660 - 1734)
phlogiston
I. Newton
1642 - 1727
Heat transfer
and
insulation
Cool and keep cold
heat input
cooling
cooling or heat removal
choice of the
refrigerant
Bath cooling
Sources of heat input
solid
conduction
q& ~ (T T )
4
w
4
k
radiation
q& =
T
s
convection
gas conduction
further sources:
- nuclear radiation
- induction
T
s
<< s
q& ~ p T
>> s
q& =
- heat conductivity
- free path length
solid conduction
convection
q& =
T
s
q& =
T
s
q& ~ p T
q& ~ (Tw4 Tk4 )
Introduction to
Refrigerators
and
Cryogens
Wrmequellen im Vakuum
Festkrperleitung durch
Kryostatenhals,
Rohrleitungen,
Ventile,
Aufhngungen,
Absttzungen,
elektrische Leitungen
Wrmebertragung durch
Restgas im Isolationsvakuum
& ~ 1/L
p >~ 10 -4 mbar Q
& ~p
p <~ 10 -4 mbar Q
(bei konstanter Temperaturdifferenz)
Strahlung
& = A T4
Q
Sonstige
Heizungen
Quench
induzierte Strme
